PART ONE Background

Introduction

1 An introduction to second language acquisition research

What is'second language acquisition'?

Case studies of L2 learners

Wong Fillmore's(1976,1979)study of five Mexican children

Schumann's (1978b)study of Alberto

Schmidt's(1983)study of Wes

Ellis'(1984a,1992)study of three classroom learners

Lardiere's(2007)study of Patty

Issues raised by the case studies

The role of age in L2 acquisition

The effects of age on the rate of second language learning

The effects of age on ultimate achievement

Agerelated effects:some general conclusions

A framework for exploring SLA

Summary and conclusion

PART TWO Description:the characteristics of learner language

Introduction

2 Learner errors and error analysis

Introduction

Collection of a sample of learner language

Errors

Identification of errors

Description of errors

Explanation of errors

Evaluating errors

Thelimitations of error analysis

Summary

More recent EA research

3 Developmental patterns in second language acquisition

Introduction

Methods for investigating developmental patterns

Developmental patterns in L1 acquisition

Developmental patterns in second language acquisition

The early stages(The silent period/Formulaic sequences/Structural and semantic simplification)

The acquisition of grammatical morphemes:order and sequence

The acquisition of vocabulary

The acquisition of phonology

The L2=L1 hypothesis

Summary

Conclusion

4 Variability in learner language

Introduction

Some theoretical perspectives

Sociolinguistic models

Social-psychological models

Psycholinguistic models

Summary and final comment

A typology of variability in learner language

Free variation in learner language

Systematic variation

Variability in form-function systems

Sociolinguistic accounts of L2 variability

Psycholinguistic accounts of L2 variability

Amulti-factor approach

Summary

Conclusion

5 Pragmatic aspects of learner languager

Introduction

Speech acts and illocutionary meaning

Research methods for studying pragmatic aspects of learner language

Illocutionary acts in learner language

Requests

Apologies

Refusals

Final comments

Interactional acts in learner language

The relationship between linguistic and pragmatic development

Conclusion

PART THREE Explaining second language acquisition:external factors

Introduction

6 Input,interaction,and second language acquisition

Introduction

Methods for investigating input and interaction

Descriptive methods

Experimental methods

Self-report methods

Introspective methods

Comment

The characteristics of input to language learners

Caretaker talk

Foreigner talk

Interlanguage talk

Summary

The characteristics of interactions involving language learners

Discourse management

Discourse repair

Repair in conversational analysis

Scaffolding

Summary

Input and interaction in first language acquisition

Input and interaction in second language acquisition

Research based on the computational model of L2 acquisition

Sociocultural accounts of interaction and L2 acquisition

Conclusion

7 Social aspects of second language acquisition

Introduction

Psycholinguistic versus sociolinguistic SLA

The social settings of L2 learning

Natural versus educational settings

Natural settings

Educational settings

Summary

Social factors and second language acquisition

Age

Sex and gender

Social class

Ethnic identity

Summary

Situational factors and L2 acquisition

Social theories of L2 acquisition

The Acculturation Model

The Socio-educational Model

The Inter-group Model

Language socialization

Social identity theory

Conclusion

PART FOUR Explaining second language acquisition:internal factors

Introduction

8 Language transfer

Introduction

Terminological issues

The methodology of transfer studies

Transfer as a communication and learning process

Choice of data for the study of transfer

Identifying instances of transfer

Measuring crosslinguistic effects

Early days

The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis

The minimalist position

Reappraisal

Evidence of transfer effects

Production

Reception

Conceptual transfer

Constraints on transfer

Sociolinguistic factors

Markedness

Prototypicality

Language distance and psychotypology

Developmental factors

Summary

Towards a theory of language transfer

1 Transfer occurs in both communication and in learning

2 Transfer arises as a result of both differences and similarities between the target language and the L1

3 Transfer works in conjunction with other factors

4 Transfer is both a conscious and subconscious process

5 Transfer is both conceptual and linguistic

6 Transfer is ultimately a subjective phenomenon

Conclusion:problems in the study of transfer

9 Cognitive accounts of second language acquisition

Introduction

The computational model

The representation of L2 knowledge

Early interlanguage theory

Variable L2 knowledge

Functionalist views of L2 knowledge

Implicit and explicit L2 knowledge

Declarative and procedual L2 knowledge

The dual-mode system

Concluding comments

The processes of L2 acquisition

Micro-processes

Macro-processes

Final comment on the study of processes of L2 acquisition

Cognitive theories of L2 acquisition

The Nativization Model and Operating Principles

The Multidimensional Model and Processability Theory

Emergentist models of L2 Language acquisition

The Competition Model

Skill—acquisition theories

Summary

Conclusion

10 Cognitive accounts of second language production

Introduction

Second language speech planning

Aspects of L2 production

The effects of speech planning on L2 production

The development of procedural skill in an L2

Communication strategies

Defining communication strategies

Taxonomies of CSs

Empirical studies of CSs

Communication strategies and L2 acquisition

Evaluation of communication strategy research

Conclusion

11 Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition

Introduction

'Language'in sociocultural theory

The methodology of sociocultural research

Key constructs in sociocultural SLA

Mediated learning

Mediation through socialinteraction

Mediation by means of private speech

The zone of proximal development

Internalization

Activity theory

SLA studies based on sociocultural theory

Corrective feedback

Collaborative dialoguing

Private speech

Metatalk

Task versus activity

Key issues in SLA:an SCT perspective

Errors

Acquisitional ordersand sequences

L1 transfer

Implicit and explicit L2 knowledge

Motivation

Conclusion

12 Linguistic universals and second language acquisition

Introduction

Interlanguage theory:another perspective

Typological universals and second language acquisition

Linguistic typology and language universals

Typologically motivated studies of second language acquisition

The role of typological universals in second language acquisition

Explaining the influence of typological universals on L2 acquisition

Universal Grammar and second language acquisition

Introducing Universal Grammar

The methodology of UG-basedstudies

Universal grammar and L2 acquisition:theoretical issues

The logical problem of language acquisition

The developmental problem of L2 acquisition

Approaches to investigating the role of UG

Empirical studies of second language acquisition based on Universal Grammar

Learning Principles

The role of UG in L2 acquisition:key issues

Towards a comprehensive theory of L2 acquisition incorporating UG

An evaluation of UG-based research and theory

Conclusion

Final comment

PART FIVE Explaining individual differences in second language acquisition

Introduction

13 Individual learner differences and second language learning

Introduction

The methodology of individual difference research

Intelligence

Working memory

Language aptitude

Learning styles

Cognitive style

Learning style

Final comment

Personality

Extraversion and introversion

The big five

Final comment

Motivation

Integrative motivation

Instrumental motivation

Linguistic self-confidence

Attributions

Intrinsic motivation and self-determination

Self-regulation

Motivational phases

The ideal language self

Final comment

Anxiety

Sources of anxiety

Language anxiety and language learning

Language anxiety and the process of learning

Final comment

Willingness to communicate

Learners'beliefs

Types of learner beliefs

The sources of learners'beliefs

The situated and dynamic nature of learner beliefs

The relationship between beliefs and learning

Learning strategies

Definition of learning strategies

Classifying learner strategies

Good language learner studies

Factors influencing choice of learning strategies

The relationship between learning strategies and language learning

Learner training

Final comment

Conclusion

PART SIX The brain and L2 acquisition

Introduction

14 The neuropsychology of second language acquisition

Introduction

The anatomy of the human brain

Left and right hemispheres

The cerebral cortex

The cerebellum

Subcortical areas

Neurons

Methods for investigating the'language brain'

Investigating bilingual aphasia

Neuroimaging

Concluding comment

Neuropsychological aspects of L2 acquisition

A specialized language faculty

The neurobiological basis of L1 and L2 acquisition

The neurobiological bases of comprehension and production in an L2

Implicitversus explicit L2 knowledge

The role of attention in L2 acquisition

Motivation and L2 acquisition

Controllingaccess to the L2 and L1

The Critical Period Hypothesis

The neurobiological basis of fossilization

Summary

Conclusion

PART SEVEN Classroom second language acquisition

Introduction

15 Classroom interaction and second language acquisition

Introduction

Methods of researching the second language classroom

Types of classroom research

Final comment

A historical overview of L2 classroom research

The nature of second language classroom discourse

Structure and general characteristics of teacher-centred discourse

Types of language use

Turn—taking

The difference between classroom and naturalistic discourse

Final comment

The teacher's contribution to classroom discourse

Teacher talk

Teachers'questions

Use of the L1

Use of metalanguage

Corrective feedback

The learner's contribution to classroom discourse

Learner participation

Small-group work and interaction

Summary

Tasks and interaction

Tasks and the negotiation of meaning

Tasks and L2 production

The co-construction of tasks through interaction

Interaction and L2 learning

Second language learning in communicative classrooms

Final comment

Conclusion

16 Form-focused instruction and second language acquisition

Introduction

Methodology of FFI studies

Choice of linguistic target

The measurement of learning in FFI studies

Theoretical positions

The'zero option'

Instruction as facilitation

The necessity of FFI

Effects of FFI on L2 acquisition

Comparative method studies

Comparisons of naturalistic and instructed L2 learners

The effects of FFI on production accuracy

The effects of FFI on the order and sequence of acquisition

The durability of FFI effects

The effects of different types of formal instruction

Methodological options for EFI

Focus-on-forms versus focus-on form

Input-based instruction

Implicit versus explicit instruction

Inductive versus deductive explicit instruction

Production practice-error-inducing

Corrective feedback

FFI and implicit knowledge

Effects of instruction on L2 pragmatic development

The mediating effects of individual difference factors

Conclusion

PART EIGHT Conclusion

Introduction

17 Epistemological issues in second language acquisition research

Introduction

The choice of data in second language acquisition research

Non—production data

Grammaticality judgement tests

Learner production data

Naturally occurring samples of learner language

Verbal reports

The question of validity

The construction and evaluation of SLA theories

Approaches to theory building in SLA research

The scope of a theory of second language acquisition

General theories of L2 acquisition

Modular theories

Epistemologically driven theories

The form of a theory of second language acquisition

Evaluating second language acquisition theories

The application of second language acquisition research to other fields of enquiry

Conclusion

Glossary

Bibliography

Author index

Subject index