1 Spontaneous and Stimulated Transitions

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Why'Quantum'Electronics?

1.3 Amplification at Optical Frequencies

1.3.1 Spontaneous Emission

1.3.2 Stimulated Emission

1.4 The Relation Between Energy Density and Intensity

1.4.1 Stimulated Absorption

1.5 Intensity of a Beam of Electromagnetic Radiation in Terms of Photon Flux

1.6 Black-Body Radiation

1.7 Relation Between the Einstein A and B Coefficients

1.8 The Effect of Level Degeneracy

1.9 Ratio of Spontaneous and Stimulated Transitions

1.10 Problems

2 Optical Frequency Amplifiers

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Homogeneous Line Broadening

2.2.1 Natural Broadening

2.3 Inhomogeneous Broadening

2.3.1 Doppler Broadening

2.4 Optical Frequency Amplification with a Homogeneously Broadened Transition

2.4.1 The Stimulated Emission Rate in a Homogeneously Broadened System

2.5 Optical Frequency Amplification with Inhomogeneous Broadening Included

2.6 Optical Frequency Oscillation-Saturation

2.6.1 Homogeneous Systems

2.6.2 Inhomogeneous Systems

2.7 Power Output from a Laser Amplitier

2.8 The Electron Oscillator Model of a Radiative Transition

2.9 What Are the Physical Significances of x'and x"?

2.10 The Classical Oscillator Explanation for Stimulated Emission

2.11 Problems

References

3 Introduction to Two Practical Laser Systems

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 The Ruby Laser

3.2 The Helium-Neon Laser

References

4 Passive Optical Resonators

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Preliminary Consideration of Optical Resonators

4.3 Calculation of the Energy Stored in an Optical Resonator

4.4 Quality Factor of a Resonator in Terms of the Transmission of its End Reflectors

4.5 Fabry-Perot Etalons and Interferometers

4.6 Internal Field Strength

4.7 Fabry-perot Interferometers as Optical Spectrum Analyzers

4.7.1 Example

4.8 Problems

References

5 Optical Resonators Containing Amplifying Media

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Fabry-Perot Resonator Containing an Amplifying Medium

5.2.1 Threshold Population Inversion-Numerical Example

5.3 The Oscillation Frequency

5.4 Multimode Laser Oscillation

5.5 Mode-Beating

5.6 The Power Output of a Laser

5.7 Optimum Coupling

5.8 Problems

References

6 LaserRadiation

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Diffraction

6.3 Two Parallel Narrow Slits

6.4 Single Slit

6.5 Two-Dimensional Apertures

6.5.1 Circular Aperture

6.6 LaserModes

6.7 Beam Divergence

6.8 Linewidth of Laser Radiation

6.9 Coherence Properties

6.10 Interference

6.11 Problems

References

7 Control of Laser Oscillators

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Multimode Operation

7.3 Single Longitudinal Mode Operation

7 4 Mode-Locking

7.5 Methods of Mode-Locking

7.5.1 Active Mode-Locking

7.6 Pulse Compression

References

8 Optically Pumped Solid-Stare Lasers

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Optical Pumping in Three-and Four-Level Lasers

8.2.1 Effective Lifetime of the Levels Involved

8.2.2 Threshold Inversion in Three-and Four-Level Lasers

8.2.3 Quantum Efficiency

8.2.4 Pumping Power

8.2.5 Threshold Lamp Power

8.3 PuIsed Versus CW Operation

8.3.1 Threshold for Pulsed Operation of a Ruby Laser

8.3.2 Threshold for CW Operation of a Ruby Laser

8.4 Threshold Population Inversion and Stimulated Emission Cross-Section

8.5 Paramagnetic Ion Solid-State Lasers

8.6 The Nd:YAG Laser

8 6.1 Efiective Spontaneous Emission Coefficient

8.6.2 Example-Threshold Pump Energy of a Pulsed Nd:YAG Laser

8.7 CW Operation of the Nd:YAG Laser

8.8 TheNd3+ Glass Laser

8.9 Geometrical Arrangements for Optical Pumping

8.9.1 Axisymmetric Optical Pumping of a Cylindrical Rod

8.10 High Power Pulsed Solid-State Lasers

8.11 Diode-Pumped Solid-State Lasers

8.12 Relaxation Oscillations(Spiking)

8.13 Rate Equations for Relaxation Oscillation

8.14 Undamped Relaxation Oscillations

8.15 Giant Pulse(Q-Switched)Lasers

8.16 Theoretical Description of the Q-Switching Process

8.16.1 Example Calculation of Q-Switched Pulse Characteristics

8.17 Problems

References

9 Gas Lasers

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Optical Pumping

9.3 Electron lmpact Excitation

9.4 The Argon Ion Laser

9.5 Pumping Saturation in Gas Laser Systems

9.6 Pulsed Ion Lasers

9.7 CW Ion Lasers

9.8 'Metal'Vapor Ion Lasers

9.9 Gas Discharges for Exciting Gas Lasers

9.10 Rate Equations for Gas Discharge Lasers

9.11 Problems

References

10 Molecular Gas Lasers Ⅰ

10.1 Introduction

10.2 The Energy Levels of Molecules

10.3 Vibrations of a Polyatomic Molecule

10.4 Rotational Energy States

10.5 Rotational Populations

10.6 The Overall Energy State of a Molecule

10.7 The Carbon Dioxide Laser

10.8 The Carbon Monoxide Laser

10.9 Other Gas Discharge Molecular Lasers

References

11 Molecular Gas Lasers Ⅱ

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Gas Transport Lasers

11.3 Gas Dynamic Lasers

11.4 High Pressure Pulsed Gas Lasers

11.5 Ultraviolet Molecular Gas Lasers

11.6 Photodissociation Lasers

11.7 Chemieal Lasers

11.8 Far-Infrared Lasers

11.9 Problems

References

12 Tunable Lasers

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Organic Dye Lasers

12.2.1 Energy Level Structure

12.2.2 Pulsed Laser Excitation

12.2.3 CW Dye Laser Operation

12.3 Calculation of Threshold Pump Power in Dye Lasers

12.3.1 Pulsed Operation

12.3.2 CW Operation

12.4 Inorganic Liquid Lasers

12.5 Free Electron Lasers

12.6 Problems

References

13 Semiconductor Lasers

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Semiconductor Physics Background

13.3 Carrier Concentrations

13.4 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

13.5 The p-n Junction

13.6 Recombination and Luminescence

13.6.1 The Spectrum of Recombination Radiation

13.6.2 External Quantum Efficiency

13.7 Heterojunctions

13.7.1 Ternary and Quaternary Lattice-Matched Materials

13.7 2 Energy Barriers and Rectification

13.7.3 The Double Heterostructure

13.8 Semiconductor Lasers

13.9 The Gain Coefficient of a Semiconductor Laser

13.9.1 Estimation of Semiconductor Laser Gain

13.10 Threshold Current and Powet-Voltage Characteristics

13.11 Longitudinal and Transverse Modes

13.12 Semiconductor Laser Structures

13.12.1 Distributed Feedback(DFB)and Distributed Bragg Reflection(DBR) Lasers

13.13 Surface Emitting Lasers

13.14 Laser Diode Arrays and Broad Area Lasers

13.15 Quantum Well Lasers

13.16 Problems

References

14 Analysis of Optical Systems Ⅰ

14.1 Introduction

14.2 The Propagation of Rays and Waves through Isotropic Media

14.3 Simple Reflection and Refraction Analysis

14.4 Paraxial Ray Analysis

14.4.1 Matrix Formulation

14.4.2 Ray Tracing

14.4.3 Imaging and Magnification

14.5 The Use of Impedances in Optics

14.5.1 Reflectance for Waves Incident on an Interface at Oblique Angles

14.5.2 Brewster's Angle

14.5.3 Transformation of Impedance through Multilayer Optical Systems

14.5.4 Polarization Changes

14.6 Problems

References

15 Analysis of Optical Systems Ⅱ

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Periodic Optical Systems

15.3 The Identical Thin Lens Waveguide

15.4 The Propagation of Rays in Mirror Resonators

15.5 The Propagation of Rays in Isotropic Media

15.6 The Propagation of Spherical Waves

15.7 Problems

References

16 Optics ofGaussian Beams

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Beam-Like Solutions of the Wave Equation

16.3 Higher Order Modes

16.3.1 Beam Modes with Cartesian Symmetry

16.3.2 Cylindrically Symmetric Higher Order Beams

16.4 The Transformation of a Gaussian Beam by a Lens

16.5 Transformation of Gaussian Beams bv General Optical Systems

16.6 Gaussian Beams in Lens Waveguides

16.7 The Propagation of a Gaussian Beam in a Medium with a Quadratic Refractive Index Profile

16.8 The Propagation of Gaussian Beams in Media with Spatial Gain or Absorption Variations

16.9 Propagation in a Medium with a Parabolic Gain Profile

16.10 Gaussian Beams in Plane and Spherical Mirror Resonators

16.11 Symmetrical Resonators

16.12 An Example of Resonator Design

16.13 Difiraction Losses

16.14 Unstable Resonators

16.15 Problems

References

17 Optical Fibers and Waveguides

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Ray Theory of Cylindrical Optical Fibers

17.2.1 Meridional Rays in a Step-Index Fiber

17.2.2 Step-lndex Fibers

17.2.3 Graded-Index Fibers

17.2.4 Bound,Refracting,and Tunnelling Rays

17.3 Ray Theory of a Dielectric Slab Guide

17.4 The Goos-H？inchen Shift

17.5 Wave Theory of the Dielectric Slab Guide

17.6 P-Waves in the Slab Guide

17.7 Dispersion Curves and Field Distributions in a Slab Waveguide

17.8 S-Waves in the Slab Guide

17.9 Practical Slab Guide Geometries

17.10 Cylindrical Dielectric Waveguides

17.10.1 Fields in the Core

17.10.2 Fields in the Cladding

17.10.3 Boundary Conditions

17.11 Modes and Field Patterns

17.12 The Weakly-Guiding Approximation

17.13 Mode Patterns

17.14 Cutoff Frequencies

17.14.1 Example

17.15 Multimode Fibers

17.16 Fabrication ofOptical Fibers

17.17 Dispersion in Optical Fibers

17.17.1 Material Dispersion

17.17.2 Waveguide Dispersion

17.18 Solitons

17.19 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers

17.20 Coupling Optical Sources and Detectors to Fibers

17.20.1 Fiber Connectors

17.21 Problems

References

18 Optics of Anisotropic Media

18.1 Introduction

18.2 The Dielectric Teusor

18.3 Stored Electromagnetic Energy in Anisotropic Media

18.4 Propagation of Monochromatic Plane Waves in Anisotropic Media

18.5 The Two Possible Directions of D for a Given Wave Vector are Orthogonal

18.6 Angular Relationships between D,E,H,k,and the Poynting Vector S

18.7 The Indicatrix

18.8 Uniaxial Crystals

18.9 Index Surfaces

18.10 Other Surfaces Related to the Uniaxial Indicatrix

18.11 Huygenian Constructions

18.12 Retardation

18.13 Biaxial Crystals

18.14 Intensity Transmission Through Polarizer/Waveplate/Polarizer Combin-ations

18.14.1 Examples

18.15 The Jones Calculus

18.15.1 The Jones Vector

18.15.2 The Jones Matrix

18.16 Problems

References

19 The Electro-Optic and Acousto-Optic Effects and Modulation of Light Beams

19.1 Introduction to the Electro-Optic Effect

19.2 The Linear Electro-Optic Effect

19.3 The Quadratic Electro-Optic Effect

19.4 Longitudinal Electro-Optic Modulation

19.5 Transverse Electro-optic Modulation

19.6 Electro-Optic Amplitude Modulation

19.7 Electro-Optic Phase Modulation

19.8 High Frequency Waveguide Electro-Optic Modulators

19.8.1 Straight Electrode Modulator

19.9 Other High Frequency Electro-Optic Devices

19.10 Electro-Optic Beam Deflectors

19.11 Acousto-Optic Modulators

19.12 Applications of Acousto-Optic Modulators

19.12.1 Diffraction Efficiency of TeO2

19.12.2 Acousto-Optic Modulators

19.12.3 Acousto-Optic Beam Deflectors and Scanners

19.12.4 RF Spectrum Analysis

19.13 Construction and Materials for Acousto-Optic Modulators

19.14 Problems

References

20 Introduction to Nonlinear Processes

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Anharmonic Potentials and Nonlinear Polarization

20.3 Nonlinear Susceplibilities and Mixing Coefficients

20.4 Second Harmonic Generation

20.4.1 Symmetries and Kleinman's Conjecture

20.5 The Linear Electro-Optic Effect

20.6 Parametric and Other Nonlinear Processes

20 7 Macroscopic and Microscopic Susceptibilities

20.8 Problems

References

21 Wave Propagation in Nonlinear Media

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Electromagnetic Wayes and Nonlinear Polarization

21.3 Second Harmonic Generation

21.4 The Effective Nonlinear Coefficient deff

21.5 Phase Matching

21.5.1 Second Harmonic Generation

21.5.2 Example

21.5.3 Phase Matching in Sum-Frequency Generation

21.6 Beam Walk-Off and 90°Phase Matching

21.7 Second Harmonic Generation with Gaussian Beams

21.7.1 Intracavity SHG

21.7.2 External SHG

21.7.3 The Effects of Depletion on Second Harmonic Generation

21.8 Up-Conversion and Difference-Frequency Generation

21.9 Optical Parametric Amplification

21.9.1 Example

21.10 Parametric Oscillators

21.10.1 Example

21.11 Parametric Oscillator Tuning

21.12 Phase Conjugation

21.12.1 Phase Conjugation in CS2

21.13 Optical Bistability

21.14 Practical Details of the Use of Crystals for Nonlinear Applications

21.15 Problems

References

22 Detection of Optical Radiation

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Noise

22.2.1 Shot Noise

22.2.2 Johnson Noise

22 2.3 Generation-Recombination Noise and l/fNoise

22.3 Detector Performance Parameters

22.3.1 Noise Equivalent Power

22.3.2 Detectivity

22 3.3 Frequency Response and Time Constant

22.4 Practical Characteristics of Optical Derectors

22.4 1 Photoemissive Detectors

22.4.2 Photoconductive Detectors

22.4.3 Photovoltaic Detectors（Photodiodes）

22.4.4 p-i-n Photodiodes

22.4.5 Avalanche Photodiodes

22.5 Thermal Delectors

22.6 Detection Limits for Optical Detector Systems

22.6.1 Noise in Photomultipliers

22.6.2 Photon Counting

22.6.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Direct Detection

22.6.4 Direct Detection with p-i-n Photodiodes

22.6.5 Direct Detection with APDs

22.7 Coherent Detection

22.8 Bit-Error Rate

References

23 Coherence Theory

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Square-Law Detectors

23.3 The Analytic Signal

23.3.1 Hilbert Transforms

23.4 Correlation Functions

23.5 Temporal and Spatial Coherence

23.6 Spatial Coherence

23.7 Spatial Coherence with an Extended Source

23.8 Propagation Laws of Partial Coherence

23.9 Propagation from a Finite Plane Surface

23.10 van Cittert-Zernike Theorem

23.11 Spatial Coherence of a Quasi-MonochromaticfUniform,Spatially Incoherent Circular Source

23.12 Intensity Correlation Interferometry

23.13 Intensity Fluctuations

23.14 Photon Statistics

23.14.1 Constant Intensity Source

23.14.2 Random Intensities

23.15 The Hanbury-Brown-Twiss Interferometer

23.16 Hanbury-Brown-Twiss Experiment with Photon Count Correlations

References

24 Laser Applications

24.1 Optical Communication Systems

24.1.1 Introduction

24.1.2 Absorption in Optical Fibers

24.1.3 Optical Conmmunication Networks

24.1.4 Optical Fiber Network Architectures

24.1.5 Coding Schemes in Optical Networks

24.1.6 Line-of-Sight Optical Links

24.2 Holography

24 2.1 Wavefront Reconstruction

24.2.2 The Hologram as a Diffraction Grating

24.2.3 Volume Holograms

24.3 Laser Isotope Separation

24.4 Laser Plasma Generation and Fusion

24.5 Medical Applications of Lasers

24.5.1 Laser Angioplasty

References

Appendix 1 Optical Terminology

Appendix 2 Theδ-Function

Appendix 3 Black-Body Radiation Formulas

Appendix 4 RLC Cireuit

A4.1 Analysis of a Driven RLC Circuit

Appendix 5 Storage and Transport of Energy by Electromagnetic Fields

Appendix 6 The Reflection and Refraction of a Plane Electromagnetic Wave at the Boundary Between Two Isotropic Media of Different Refractive Index

Appendix 7 The Vector Differential Equation for Light Rays

Appendix 8 Symmetry Properties of Crystals and the 32 Crystal Classes

A8.1 Class 6mm

A8.2 Class 42m

A8.3 Class 222

Appendix 9 Tensors

Appendix 10 Bessel Function Relations

Appendix 11 Green's Functions

Appendix 12 Recommended Values of Some Physical Constants

Index