Chapter 1 Introduction

References

Chapter 2 Earth as a Microbial Habitat

2.1 Geologically Important Features

2.2 Biosphere

2.3 Summary

References

Chapter 3 Origin of Life and Its Early History

3.1 Beginnings

3.1.1 Origin of Life on Earth: Panspermia

3.1.2 Origin of Life on Earth: de novo Appearance

3.1.3 Life from Abiotically Formed Organic Molecules in Aqueous Solution Organic Soup Theory

3.1.4 Surface Metabolism Theory

3.1.5 Origin of Life through Iron Monosulfide Bubbles in Hadean Ocean at the Interface of Sulfide-Bearing Hydrothermal Solution and Iron-Bearing Ocean Water

3.2 Evolution of Life through the Precambrian: Biological and Biochemical Benchmarks

3.2.1 Early Evolution According to Organic Soup Scenario

3.2.2 Early Evolution According to Surface Metabolist Scenario

3.3 Evidence

3.4 Summary

References

Chapter 4 Lithosphere as Microbial Habitat

4.1 Rock and Minerals

4.2 Mineral Soil

4.2.1 Origin of Mineral Soil

4.2.2 Some Structural Features of Mineral Soil

4.2.3 Effects of Plants and Animals on Soil Evolution

4.2.4 Effects of Microbes on Soil Evolution

4.2.5 Effects of Water on Soil Erosion

4.2.6 Water Distribution in Mineral Soil

4.2.7 Nutrient Availability in Mineral Soil

4.2.8 Some Major Soil Types

4.2.9 Types of Microbes and Their Distribution in Mineral Soil

4.3 Organic Soils

4.4 The Deep Subsurface

4.5 Summary

References

Chapter 5 The Hydrosphere as Microbial Habitat

5.1The Oceans

5.1.1 Physical Attributes

5.1.2 Ocean in Motion

5.1.3 Chemical and Physical Properties of Seawater

5.1.4 Microbial Distribution in Water Column and Sediments

5.1.5 Effects of Temperature, Hydrostatic Pressure, and Salinity on Microbial Distribution in Oceans

5.1.6 Dominant Phytoplankters and Zooplankters in Oceans

5.1.7 Plankters of Geomicrobial Interest

5.1.8 Bacterial Flora in Oceans

5.2Freshwater Lakes

5.2.1Some Physical and Chemical Features of Lakes

5.2.2Lake Bottoms

5.2.3Lake Fertility

5.2.4Lake Evolution

5.2.5Microbial Populations in Lakes

5.3Rivers

5.4Groundwaters

5.5Summary

References

Chapter 6 Geomicrobial Processes: Physiological and Biochemical Overview

6.1Types of Geornicrobial Agents

6.2Geomicrobially Important Physiological Groups of Prokaryotes

6.3Role of Microbes in Inorganic Conversions in Lithosphere and Hydrosphere

6.4Types of Microbial Activities Influencing Geological Processes

6.5Microbes as Catalysts of Geochernical Processes

6.5.1 Catabolic Reactions: Aerobic Respiration

6.5.2 Catabolic Reactions: Anaerobic Respiration

6.5.3 Catabolic Reactions: Respiration Involving Insoluble Inorganic Substrates as Electron Donors or Acceptors

6.5.4 Catabolic Reactions: Fermentation

6.5.5 How Energy Is Generated by Aerobic and Anaerobic Respirers and Fermenters During Catabolism

6.5.6 How Chemolithoautotrophic Bacteria Chemosynthetic Autotrophs Generate Reducing Power for Assimilating CO2 and Converting It into Organic Carbon

6.5.7 How Photosynthetic Microbes Generate Energy and Reducing Power

6.5.8 Anabolism: How Microbes Use Energy Trapped in High-Energy Bonds to Drive Energy-Consuming Reactions

6.5.9 Carbon Assimilation by Mixotrophs, Photoheterotrophs,and Heterotrophs

6.6Microbial Mineralization of Organic Matter

6.7Microbial Products of Metabolism That Can Cause Geomicrobial Transformations

6.8Physical Parameters That Influence Geomicrobial Activity

6.9Summary

References

Chapter 7 Nonmolecular Methods in Geomicrobiology

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Detection, Isolation, and Identification of Geomicrobially Active Organisms

7.2.1 In Situ Observation of Geomicrobial Agents

7.2.2 Identification by Application of Molecular Biological Techniques

7.3 Sampling

7.3.1 Terrestrial Surface/Subsurface Sampling

7.3.2 Aquatic Sampling

7.3.3 Sample Storage

7.3.4 Culture Isolation and Characterization of Active Agents from Environmental Samples

7.4 In Situ Study of Past Geomicrobial Activity

7.5 In Situ Study of Ongoing Geomicrobial Activity

7.6 Laboratory Reconstruction of Geomicrobial Processes in Nature

7.7 Quantitative Study of Growth on Surfaces

7.8 Test for Distinguishing between Enzymatic and Nonenzymatic Geomicrobial Activity

7.9 Study of Reaction Products of Geomicrobial Transformation

7.10 Summary

References

Chapter 8 Molecular Methods in Geomicrobiology

8.1Introduction

8.2Who Is There? Identification of Geomicrobial Organisms

8.2.1 Culture-Independent Methods

8.2.2 New Culturing Techniques

8.3What Are They Doing? Deducing Activities of Geomicrobial Organisms

8.3.1 Single-Cell Isotopic Techniques

8.3.2 Single-Cell Metabolite Techniques

8.3.3 Community Techniques Involving Isotopes

8.3.4 Community Techniques Involving Genomics

8.3.5 Probing for Expression of Metabolic Genes or Their Gene Products

8.4How Are They Doing It? Unraveling the Mechanisms of Geomicrobial Organisms

8.4.1Genetic Approaches

8.4.2Bioinformatic Approaches

8.4.3Follow-Up Studies

8.5Summary

References

Chapter 9 Microbial Formation and Degradation of Carbonates

9.1 Distribution of Carbon in Earths Crust

9.2 Biological Carbonate Deposition

9.2.1 Historical Perspective of Study of Carbonate Deposition

9.2.2 Basis for Microbial Carbonate Deposition

9.2.3 Conditions for Extracellular Microbial Carbonate Precipitation

9.2.4 Carbonate Deposition by Cyanobacteria

9.2.5 Possible Model for Oolite Formation

9.2.6 Structural or Intracellular Carbonate Deposition by Microbes

9.2.7 Models for Skeletal Carbonate Formation

9.2.8 Microbial Formation of Carbonates Other Than Those of Calcium

9.2.8.1 Sodium Carbonate

9.2.8.2 Manganous Carbonate

9.2.8.3 Ferrous Carbonate

9.2.8.4 Strontium Carbonate

9.2.8.5 Magnesium Carbonate

9.3 Biodegradation of Carbonates

9.3.1 Biodegradation of Limestone

9.3.2 Cyanobacteria, Algae, and Fungi That Bore into Limestone

9.4 Biological Carbonate Formation and Degradation and the Carbon Cycle

9.5 Summary

References

Chapter 10 Geomicrobial Interactions with Silicon

10.1 Distribution and Some Chemical Properties

10.2 Biologically Important Properties of Silicon and Its Compounds

10.3 Bioconcentration of Silicon

10.3.1 Bacteria

10.3.2 Fungi

10.3.3 Diatoms

10.4 Biomobilization of Silicon and Other Constituents of SilicatesBioweathering

10.4.1 Solubilization by Ligands

10.4.2 Solubilization by Acids

10.4.3 Solubilization by Alkali

10.4.4 Solubilization by Extracellular Polysaccharide

10.4.5 Depolymerization of Polysilicates

10.5 Role of Microbes in the Silica Cycle

10.6 Summary

References

Chapter 11 Geomicrobiology of Aluminum: Microbes and Bauxite

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Microbial Role in Bauxite Formation

11.2.1 Nature of Bauxite

11.2.2 Biological Role in Weathering of the Parent Rock Material

11.2.3 Weathering Phase

11.2.4 Bauxite Maturation Phase

11.2.5 Bacterial Reduction of Fe in Bauxites from Different Locations

11.2.6 Other Observations of Bacterial Interaction with Bauxite

11.3 Summary

References

Chapter 12 Geomicrobial Interactions with Phosphorus

12.1 Biological Importance of Phosphorus

12.2 Occurrence in Earths Crust

12.3 Conversion of Organic into Inorganic Phosphorus and Synthesis of Phosphate Esters

12.4 Assimilation of Phosphorus

12.5 Microbial Solubilization of Phosphate Minerals

12.6 Microbial Phosphate Immobilization

12.6.1 Phosphorite Deposition

12.6.1.1 Authigenic Formations

12.6.1.2 Diagenetic Formation

12.6.2 Occurrences of Phosphorite Deposits

12.6.3 Deposition of Other Phosphate Minerals

12.7 Microbial Reduction of Oxidized Forms of Phosphorus

12.8 Microbial Oxidation of Reduced Forms of Phosphorus

12.9 Microbial Role in the Phosphorus Cycle

12.10 Summary

References

Chapter 13 Geomicrobially Important Interactions with Nitrogen

13.1 Nitrogen in Biosphere

13.2 Microbial Interactions with Nitrogen

13.2.1 Ammonification

13.2.2 Nitrification

13.2.3 Ammonia Oxidation

13.2.4 Nitrite Oxidation

13.2.5 Heterotrophic Nitrification

13.2.6 Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation Anammox

13.2.7 Denitrification

13.2.8 Nitrogen Fixation

13.3 Microbial Role in the Nitrogen Cycle

13.4 Summary

References

Chapter 14 Geomicrobial Interactions with Arsenic and Antimony

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Arsenic

14.2.1 Distribution

14.2.2 Some Chemical Characteristics

14.2.3 Toxicity

14.2.4 Microbial Oxidation of Reduced Forms of Arsenic

14.2.4.1 Aerobic Oxidation of Dissolved Arsenic

14.2.4.2 Anaerobic Oxidation of Dissolved Arsenic

14.2.5 Interaction with Arsenic-Containing Minerals

14.2.6 Microbial Reduction of Oxidized Arsenic Species

14.2.7 Arsenic Respiration

14.2.8 Direct Observations of Arsenite Oxidation and Arsenate Reduction In Situ

14.3 Antimony

14.3.1 Antimony Distribution in Earth's Crust

14.3.2 Microbial Oxidation of Antimony Compounds

14.3.3 Microbial Reduction of Oxidized Antimony Minerals

14.4 Summary

References

Chapter 15 Geornicrobiology of Mercury

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Distribution of Mercury in Earth's Crust

15.3 Anthropogenic Mercury

15.4 Mercury in Environment

15.5 Specific Microbial Interactions with Mercury

15.5.1 Nonenzymatic Methylation of Mercury by Microbes

15.5.2 Enzymatic Methylation of Mercury by Microbes

15.5.3 Microbial Diphenylmercury Formation

15.5.4 Microbial Reduction of Mercuric Ion

15.5.5 Formation of Meta-Cinnabar (?-HgS)from Hg(Ⅱ)by Cyanobacteria

15.5.6 Microbial Decomposition of Organomercurials

15.5.7 Oxidation of Metallic Mercury

15.6 Genetic Control of Mercury Transformations

15.7 Environmental Significance of Microbial Mercury Transformations

15.8 Mercury Cycle

15.9 Summary

References

Chapter 16 Geornicrobiology of Iron

16.1 Iron Distribution in Earth's Crust

16.2 Geochemically Important Properties

16.3 Biological Importance of Iron

16.3.1 Function of Iron in Cells

16.3.2 Iron Assimilation by Microbes

16.4 Iron as Energy Source for Bacteria

16.4.1 Acidophiles

16.4.2 Domain Bacteria: Mesophiles

16.4.2.1 Acidithiobacillus (Formerly Thiobacillus)ferrooxidans

16.4.2.2 Thiobacillus prosperus

16.4.2.3 Leptospirillum ferrooxidans

16.4.2.4 Metallogeuium

16.4.2.5 Ferromicrobium acidophilum

16.4.2.6 Strain CCH7

16.4.3 Domain Bacteria: Thermophiles

16.4.3.1 Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans

16.4.3.2 Sulfobacillus acidophilus

16.4.3.3 Acidimicrobium ferrooxidans

16.4.4 Domain Archaea: Mesophiles

16.4.4.1 Ferroplasma acidiphilum

16.4.4.2 Ferroplasma acidarmanus

16.4.5 Domain Archaea: Thermophiles

16.4.5.1 Acidianus brierleyi

16.4.5.2 Sulfolobus acidocaldarius

16.4.6 Domain Bacteria: Neutrophilic Iron Oxidizers

16.4.6.1 Unicellular Bacteria

16.4.7 Appendaged Bacteria

16.4.7.1 Gallionella ferruginea

16.4.7.2 Sheathed, Encapsulated, and Wall-Less Iron Bacteria

16.5 Anaerobic Oxidation of Ferrous Iron

16.5.1 Phototrophic Oxidation

16.5.2 Chemotrophic Oxidation

16.6 IronIII as Terminal Electron Acceptor in Bacterial Respiration

16.6.1 Bacterial Ferric Iron Reduction Accompanying Fermentation

16.6.2 Ferric Iron Respiration: Early History

16.6.3 Metabolic Evidence for Enzymatic Ferric Iron Reduction

16.6.4 Ferric Iron Respiration: Current Status

16.6.5 Electron Transfer from Cell Surface of a Dissimilatory Fe Reducer to Ferric Oxide Surface

16.6.6 Bioenergetics of Dissimilatory Iron Reduction

16.6.7 Ferric Iron Reduction as Electron Sink

16.6.8 Reduction of Ferric Iron by Fungi

16.6.9 Types of Ferric Compounds Attacked by Dissimilatory Iron Reduction

16.7 Nonenzymatic Oxidation of Ferrous Iron and Reduction of Ferric Iron by Microbes

16.7.1 Nonenzymatic Oxidation

16.7.2 Nonenzymatic Reduction

16.8 Microbial Precipitation of Iron

16.8.1 Enzymatic Processes

16.8.2 Nonenzymatic Processes

16.8.3 Bioaccumulation of Iron

16.9 Concept of Iron Bacteria

16.10 Sedimentary Iron Deposits of Putative Biogenic Origin

16.11 Microbial Mobilization of Iron from Minerals in Ore, Soil,and Sediments

16.12 Microbes and Iron Cycle

16.13 Summary

References

Chapter 17 Geomicrobiology of Manganese

17.1 Occurrence of Manganese in Earths Crust

17.2 Geochemically Important Properties of Manganese

17.3 Biological Importance of Manganese

17.4 Manganese-Oxidizing and Manganese-Reducing Bacteria and Fungi

17.4.1 Manganese-Oxidizing Bacteria and Fungi

17.4.2 Manganese-Reducing Bacteria and Fungi

17.5 Biooxidation of Manganese

17.5.1 Enzymatic Manganese Oxidation

17.5.2 Group I Manganese Oxidizers

17.5.2.1 Subgroup Ia

17.5.2.2 Subgroup Ib

17.5.2.3 Subgroup Ic

17.5.2.4 Subgroup Id

17.5.2.5 Uncertain Subgroup Affiliations

17.5.3 Group Ⅱ Manganese Oxidizers

17.5.4 Group Ⅲ Manganese Oxidizers

17.5.5 Nonenzymatic Manganese Oxidation

17.6 Bioreduction of Manganese

17.6.1 Organisms Capable of Reducing Manganese Oxides Only Anaerobically

17.6.2 Reduction of Manganese Oxides by Organisms Capable of Reducing Manganese Oxides Aerobically and Anaerobically

17.6.3 Bacterial Reduction of Manganese(Ⅲ)

17.6.4 Nonenzymatic Reduction of Manganese Oxides

17.7 Bioaccumulation of Manganese

17.8 Microbial Manganese Deposition in Soil and on Rocks

17.8.1 Soil

17.8.2 Rocks

17.8.3 Ores

17.9 Microbial Manganese Deposition in Freshwater Environments

17.9.1 Bacterial Manganese Oxidation in Springs

17.9.2 Bacterial Manganese Oxidation in Lakes

17.9.3 Bacterial Manganese Oxidation in Water Distribution Systems

17.10 Microbial Manganese Deposition in Marine Environments

17.10.1 Microbial Manganese Oxidations in Bays, Estuaries,Inlets, the Black Sea, etc

17.10.2 Manganese Oxidation in Mixed Layer of Ocean

17.10.3 Manganese Oxidation on Ocean Floor

17.10.4 Manganese Oxidation around Hydrothermal Vents

17.10.5 Bacterial Manganese Precipitation in Seawater Column

17.11 Microbial Mobilization of Manganese in Soils and Ores

17.11.1 Soils

17.11.2 Ores

17.12 Microbial Mobilization of Manganese in Freshwater Environments

17.13 Microbial Mobilization of Manganese in Marine Environments

17.14 Microbial Manganese Reduction and Mineralization of Organic Matter

17.15 Microbial Role in Manganese Cycle in Nature

17.16 Summary

References

Chapter 18 Geomicrobial Interactions with Chromium, Molybdenum, Vanadium,Uranium, Polonium, and Plutonium

18.1 Microbial Interaction with Chromium

18.1.1 Occurrence of Chromium

18.1.2 Chemically and Biologically Important Properties

18.1.3 Mobilization of Chromium with Microbially Generated Lixiviants

18.1.4 Biooxidation of Chromium

18.1.5 Bioreduction of Chromium

18.1.6 In Situ Chromate Reducing Activity

18.1.7 Applied Aspects of Chromium Reduction

18.2 Microbial Interaction with Molybdenum

18.2.1 Occurrence and Properties of Molybdenum

18.2.2 Microbial Oxidation and Reduction

18.3 Microbial Interaction with Vanadium

18.3.1 Bacterial Oxidation of Vanadium

18.4 Microbial Interaction with Uranium

18.4.1 Occurrence and Properties of Uranium

18.4.2 Microbial Oxidation of U

18.4.3 Microbial Reduction of U

18.4.4 Bioremediation of Uranium Pollution

18.5 Bacterial Interaction with Polonium

18.6 Bacterial Interaction with Plutonium

18.7 Summary

References

Chapter 19 Geomicrobiology of Sulfur

19.1 Occurrence of Sulfur in Earths Crust

19.2 Geochemically Important Properties of Sulfur

19.3 Biological Importance of Sulfur

19.4 Mineralization of Organic Sulfur Compounds

19.5 Sulfur Assimilation

19.6 Geomicrobially Important Types of Bacteria That React with Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds

19.6.1 Oxidizers of Reduced Sulfur

19.6.2 Reducers of Oxidized Forms of Sulfur

19.6.2.1 Sulfate Reduction

19.6.2.2 Sulfate Reduction

19.6.2.3 Reduction of Elemental Sulfur

19.7 Physiology and Biochemistry of Microbial Oxidation of Reduced Forms of Sulfur

19.7.1 Sulfide

19.7.1.1 Aerobic Attack

19.7.1.2 Anaerobic Attack

19.7.1.3 Oxidation of Sulfide by Heterotrophs and Mixotrophs

19.7.2 Elemental Sulfur

19.7.2.1 Aerobic Attack

19.7.2.2 Anaerobic Oxidation of Elemental Sulfur

19.7.2.3 Disproportionation of Sulfur

19.7.3 Sulfite Oxidation

19.7.3.1 Oxidation by Aerobes

19.7.3.2 Oxidation by Anaerobes

19.7.4 Thiosulfate Oxidation

19.7.4.1 Disproportionation of Thiosulfate

19.7.5 Tetrathionate Oxidation

19.7.6 Common Mechanism for Oxidizing Reduced Inorganic Sulfur Compounds in Domain Bacteria

19.8 Autotrophic and Mixotrophic Growth on Reduced Forms of Sulfur

19.8.1 Energy Coupling in Bacterial Sulfur Oxidation

19.8.2 Reduced Forms of Sulfur as Sources of Reducing Power for CO2 Fixation by Autotrophs

19.8.2.1 Chemosynthetic Autotrophs

19.8.2.2 Photosynthetic Autotrophs

19.8.3 CO2 Fixation by Autotrophs

19.8.3.1 Chemosynthetic Autotrophs

19.8.3.2 Photosynthetic Autotrophs

19.8.4 Mixotrophy

19.8.4.1 Free-Living Bacteria

19.8.5 Unusual Consortia

19.9 Anaerobic Respiration Using Oxidized Forms of Sulfur as Terminal Electron Acceptors

19.9.1 Reduction of Fully or Partially Oxidized Sulfur

19.9.2 Biochemistry of Dissimilatory Sulfate Reduction

19.9.3 Sulfur Isotope Fractionation

19.9.4 Reduction of Elemental Sulfur

19.9.5 Reduction of Thiosulfate

19.9.6 Terminal Electron Acceptors Other Than Sulfate, Sulfite,Thiosulfate, or Sulfur

19.9.7 Oxygen Tolerance of Sulfate-Reducers

19.10 Autotrophy, Mixotrophy, and Heterotrophy among Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria

19.10.1 Autotrophy

19.10.2 Mixotrophy

19.10.3 Heterotrophy

19.11 Biodeposition of Native Sulfur

19.11.1 Types of Deposits

19.11.2 Examples of Syngenetic Sulfur Deposition

19.11.2.1 Cyrenaican Lakes, Libya, North Africa

19.11.2.2 Lake Senoye

19.11.2.3 Lake Eyre

19.11.2.4 Solar Lake

19.11.2.5 Thermal Lakes and Springs

19.11.3 Examples of Epigenetic Sulfur Deposits

19.11.3.1 Sicilian Sulfur Deposits

19.11.3.2 Salt Domes

19.11.3.3 Gaurdak Sulfur Deposit

19.11.3.4 Shor-Su Sulfur Deposit

19.11.3.5 Kara Kum Sulfur Deposit

19.12 Microbial Role in Sulfur Cycle

19.13 Summary

References

Chapter 20 Biogenesis and Biodegradation of Sulfide Minerals at Earths Surface

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Natural Origin of Metal Sulfides

20.2.1 Hydrothermal Origin Abiotic

20.2.2 Sedimentary Metal Sulfides of Biogenic Origin

20.3 Principles of Metal Sulfide Formation

20.4 Laboratory Evidence in Support of Biogenesis of Metal Sulfides

20.4.1 Batch Cultures

20.4.2 Column Experiment: Model for Biogenesis of Sedimentary Metal Sulfides

20.5 Biooxidation of Metal Sulfides

20.5.1 Organisms Involved in Biooxidation of Metal Sulfides

20.5.2 Direct Oxidation

20.5.3 Indirect Oxidation

20.5.4 Pyrite Oxidation

20.6 Bioleaching of Metal Sulfide and Uraninite Ores

20.6.1 Metal Sulfide Ores

20.6.2 Uraninite Leaching

20.6.3 Mobilization of Uranium in Granitic Rocks by Heterotrophs

20.6.4 Study of Bioleaching Kinetics

20.6.5 Industrial versus Natural Bioleaching

20.7 Bioextraction of Metal Sulfide Ores by Complexation

20.8 Formation of Acid Coal Mine Drainage

20.8.1 New Discoveries Relating to Acid Mine Drainage

20.9 Summary

References

Chapter 21 Geomicrobiology of Selenium and Tellurium

21.1 Occurrence in Earths Crust

21.2 Biological Importance

21.3 Toxicity of Selenium and Tellurium

21.4 Biooxidation of Reduced Forms of Selenium

21.5 Bioreduction of Oxidized Selenium Compounds

21.5.1 Other Products of Selenate and Selenite Reduction

21.5.2 Selenium Reduction in the Environment

21.6 Selenium Cycle

21.7 Biooxidation of Reduced Forms of Tellurium

21.8 Bioreduction of Oxidized Forms of Tellurium

21.9 Summary

References

Chapter 22 Geomicrobiology of Fossil Fuels

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Natural Abundance of Fossil Fuels

22.3 Methane

22.3.1 Methanogens

22.3.2 Methanogenesis and Carbon Assimilation by Methanogens

22.3.2.1 Methanogenesis

22.3.3 Bioenergetics of Methanogenesis

22.3.4 Carbon Fixation by Methanogens

22.3.5 Microbial Methane Oxidation

22.3.5.1 Aerobic Methanotrophy

22.3.5.2 Anaerobic Methanotrophy

22.3.6 Biochemistry of Methane Oxidation in Aerobic Methanotrophs

22.3.7 Carbon Assimilation by Aerobic Methanotrophs

22.3.8 Position of Methane in Carbon Cycle

22.4 Peat

22.4.1 Nature of Peat

22.4.2 Roles of Microbes in Peat Formation

22.5 Coal

22.5.1 Nature of Coal

22.5.2 Role of Microbes in Coal Formation

22.5.3 Coal as Microbial Substrate

22.5.4 Microbial Desulfurization of Coal

22.6 Petroleum

22.6.1 Nature of Petroleum

22.6.2 Role of Microbes in Petroleum Formation

22.6.3 Role of Microbes in Petroleum Migration in Reservoir Rock

22.6.4 Microbes in Secondary and Tertiary Oil Recovery

22.6.5 Removal of Organic Sulfur from Petroleum

22.6.6 Microbes in Petroleum Degradation

22.6.7 Current State of Knowledge of Aerobic and Anaerobic Petroleum Degradation by Microbes

22.6.8 Use of Microbes in Prospecting for Petroleum

22.6.9 Microbes and Shale Oil

22.7 Summary

References

Glossary

Index