1 Patterns in Crime

Introduction

Criminology and Criminal Justice

Criminology

Descriptive Science

Formal Logical Science

Creative Science

Elements of Criminology: The Empirical Science

Descriptive Studies of Crime

Criminal Law

The Criminal Justice System

Motivation

Criminal Justice

Process Issues

Content Issues

Crime Patterns, Criminology, and Criminal Justice

Criminal politics

Criminality

Criminal Justice System

Criminal Events

Patterns in Crime

Chapter Summary

2 Personal Descriptions of Crime

Introduction

Personal Descriptions of Crime

Memoirs

Clustered Personal Accounts

Systematic Observation

Problems with Personal Accounts of Crime

Chapter Summary

3 Criminal Justice System Records of Crime

Introduction

Criminal Justice System Structures

Outlines of the Criminal Justice Systems in England, Canada, and the United States

Criminal Jurisdiction and Criminal Codes

Police Organization

Prosecution and Defense

Criminal Court Organization

Correctional System

Crime Statistics

Judicial Statistics

Correctional Statistics

Police Statistics

Enumerating Crimes

Problems with Crime Statistics

Defining Crime

Case Filtration

Problems with Judicial Data

Definitional Problems

Information Distortion

Policy Variations

Problems with Police Data

Selection and Categorization

The Dark Figure of Criminality

The Dark Figure of Recording

Additional Technical Problems

Chapter Summary

4 Surveys of Crime

Introduction

Self-report Studies

Problems with Self-report Data

Noncomparability

Reliability, Validity, and Fair Inference

Victimization Surveys

The President's Commission Studies: 1965-1967

The National Crime Survey

Victimization Surveys in Canada

Problems with Victimizations Surveys

Coverage

Comparability

Memory Effects

Validation Problems

Chapter Summary

5 Using the Sources of Information About Crime

Introduction

Assessing Single-Source Information

Uniform Crime Reports and Victimization Surveys

Homicide Statistics

Intercity Correlations

Ecological Patterns

Commercial Crime and Commercial Victimization

Consistency of Reporting Rates

Crime Pattern Comparison

Self-report, Victimization, and Police Statistics

Police Statistics and Other Criminal Justice Statistics

Using Multiple-Source Information About Crime

Chapter Summary

6 Temporal Analysis of Crime

Introduction

Pattern Analysis

Overall Visual Inspection

Time-Scale Analysis

Graphical Analysis

Graphical Manipulation

Numerical Analysis

Basic Time Series Model

Basic Statistical Techniques

Regression Analysis of Time Series

Chapter Summary

7 Modern Temporal Patterns in Crime

Introduction

Trends Since 1960 in the United States, Canada, and England

The United States

Canada

Comparison of U.S. and Canadian Crime Patterns

England and Wales

Explanation of Recent Trends

Demographic Factors

Economic Factors

Social Factors

Opportunity Factors

Criminal-Justice-System Factors

Chapter Summary

8 Long-Term Patterns in Crime

Introduction

Data Sources About Historical Crime Patterns

Long-Term Crime Patterns in England

Crime in Medieval England

Crime in Early Modern England: 1550-1700

Crime in the Eighteenth Century

Crime in the Nineteenth Century

Crime in the Twentieth Century

Long-Term Crime Patterns in America

Crime in the Seventeenth Century

Crime in the Eighteenth Century

Crime in the Nineteenth Century

Crime in the Twentieth Century

Long-Term Crime Patterns in Canada

Crime Trends

The Crime Mix: 1880-1970

Long-Term Crime Trends: Approaches to Explanation

The Decline in English Homicide Rates

The Long Cycles in Crime

The Anomalous Canadian Crime Pattern

Structural Changes and Crime

Chapter Summary

9 Spatial Analysis of Crime

Introduction

Analysis of Absolute Locations

Point Data

Mapping

Analysis of Relative Locations

Center of Mass

Nearest-Neighbor Analysis

Statistical Analysis

Problems with Spatial Units

Ecological Fallacy

Analysis of Flow Data

Analysis of Nodes and Routes

Distance-Decay Modeling

Gravity-Potential Modeling

Graph Theory

Diffusion Modeling

Spatial Theories

Macroanalysis

Mesoanalysis

Microanalysis

Chapter Summary

10 Macrospatial and Mesospatial Patterns in Crime

Introduction

The World Crime Pattern in Recent Years

Explanations for the World Crime Pattern

Crime Patterns Within Three Common Law Countries

Regional Studies in the Nineteenth Century

Regional Crime Patterns in England and Wales

Regional Crime Patterns in Canada

Regional Crime Patterns in the United States

Intermetropolitan Crime Patterns

City Size and Crime Rates

Socioeconomic Predictors of Intermetropolitan Crime Patterns

Chapter Summary

11 Crime Within Cities

Introduction

Historical Intraurban Crime Patterns

The Rookeries of London

Crime and Criminal Areas in Nineteenth-Century American Cities

Intracity Crime Patterns in the Nineteenth Century

The Social Ecology of Crime: The Chicago Model

The Chicago Model Applied to Crime: Shaw and McKay

Erosion of the Zonal Model of Criminal Area Distribution

Recent Intraurban Crime Patterns

England and Wales

Canada

United States

Chapter Summary

12 Microspatial Analysis of Crime

Introduction

Environment

Behavior

Spatial Behavior

Basic Model of Target Selection

Proposition Ⅰ: Multistaged Search Behavior

Proposition Ⅱ: Cue-Emitting Potential of the Environment

Proposition Ⅲ: Crime Cues

Proposition Ⅳ: Template Construction

Proposition Ⅴ: Relative Endurance of a Crime Template

Proposition Ⅵ: Limited Number of Templates

Criminal Spatial Behavior

Crime Trips

Distance Perception

Activity Spaces

Awareness Spaces

Formation of an Awareness Space

Aggregate Criminal-Spatial Behavior

Cognitive Maps

Perceived Crime Locations

Target Distribution: Opportunity Space

Crime Occurrence Space

Chapter Summary

Bibliography

Index