1 INTRODUCTION

The Place of Experiment in Physical Science

2 ERRORS AND THE TREATMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

2．1 Introduction

2．2 Types of Experimental Error

2．3 Systematic Errors

2．4 Random Errors

2．5 The Mean

2．6 The Law of Errors

Table 2．1 Useful Quantities connected with the Error Integral

2．7 The Rejection of Observations

2．8 The Combination of Errors

Table 2．2 Combination of Errors

2．9 An Application of Least Squares—fitting a Relation to Experimental Results

2．10 Other Applications of Least Squares

2．11 Non-Gaussian Distributions

2．12 The Poisson Distribution

2．13 Mathematical Note on the Statistics of Counting(Poisson Distribution)

Appendix to Chapter 2＆by J．Maddox

2．14 General Principles

2．15 Logarithm Tables

2．16 Other Mathematical Tables

2．17 Slide Rules

2．18 Calculating Machines

2．19 Curve Fitting

2．20 Polynomial Form

Table 2．3 Fitting a Polynomial

2．21 Trigonometric Approximation

Table 2．4 A Harmonic Analysis

2．22 Other Forms of f(x)

2．23 The Significance of Least-Squares Calculations

2．24 The Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equations

2．25 Systematic Elimination

Table 2．5 Solution of a Set of Simultaneous Equations

2．26 The Relaxation Method

Table 2．6 Table2．7 Example of Relaxation

2．27 The Accuracy of Solutions

2．28 Numerical Integration

2．29 The Use of Quadrature Formulae

Table 2．8 Examples of Quadrature

2．30 The Accuracy of Numerical Integration

Table 2．9 Errors of Quadrature Formulae

3 MECHANICAL DESIGN

3．1 Introduction

3．2 Kinematics

3．3 Kinematic Design

Table 3．1 Loading of Ball-Plane Contacts

3．4 One Degree of Translation—the Kinematic Slide

3．5 One Degree of Freedom—Rotation

3．6 Summary of the Uses of Kinematic Designs

3．7 Motional Hysteresis—the Use of Spring Constraints

3．8 Sine and Cosine Errors in Measuring Instruments

3．9 The Control of Translational Motion

3．10 Centring Errors—the Measurement of Rotation

3．11 The Size of Physical Apparatus—General Considerations

3．12 Example—Rotating Wheels

3．13 The Size of Instruments—Other Examples

3．14 The Size of Physical Apparatus—Thermal Considerations

3．15 The Balancing of Instruments

3．16 Dynamic Balance

3．17 Mechanical Disturbances—Anti-Vibration Supports

3．18 Practical Forms of Anti-Vibration Support

Appendix 1 Some Points of Design

Appendix 2 Selected Engineering Formulae

Table 3．2 Data on Loaded Beams

Table 3．3 Second Moments of Sections

Table 3．4 Stability of Struts

Table 3．5 Circular Shafts

Table 3．6 Wall Stresses in Pressure Vessels

4 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

4．1 Introduction

4．2 Metals—Mechanical Properties

4．3 Steels—Iron Alloys containing Carbon

Table 4．1 Plain Carbon Steels

Table 4．2 Tempering of Tool Steel

4．4 Alloy Steels

4．5 Invar and Elinvar

4．6 Copper and its Alloys

4．7 Copper-Zinc Alloys—Brasses

4．8 Copper-Tin Alloys—Bronze and Gun Metal

4．9 Copper-Nickel Alloys

4．10 Copper-Beryllium

4．11 Aluminium and Light Alloys

4．12 The Jointing of Metals—Soldering

Table 4．3 Solders

4．13 Plastic Cements for Metals

4．14 Metals for Electrical Purposes

Table 4．4 Commercially Pure Metals for Electrical Purposes

4．15 Alloys for Electrical Purposes

Table 4．5 Alloys with important Electrical Properties

Table 4．6 Thermocouples

4．16 Magnetic Materials(Soft)

Table 4．7 Soft Magnetic Materials

4．17 Magnetic Materials(Hard)

Table 4．8 Representative Permanent Magnetic Materials

4．18 Ferrites

4．19 Non-Magnetic Materials

4．20 Insulating Materials

4．21 Plastics

Table 4．9 High-Temperature Insulators

Table 4．10 General Purpose Insulators

Table 4．11 Insulators for Electrometer Circuits

Table 4．12 Notes on Insulating Materials

Table 4．13 Plastics

4．22 Note on the Materials of Table 4．13 and some other Plastics

4．23 Glass

4．24 Glass as a Mechanical Material

4．25 Glassblowing

Table 4．14 Properties of Glasses

4．26 Fused Quartz

4．27 Quartz Fibres

Table 4．15 Torsion Constants and Tensile Strengths of Quartz Fibres

Appendix to Chapter 4 Small Laboratory Furnaces

5 VACUUM TECHNIQUE

5．1 Introduction

Table 5．1 Molecular Quantities

5．2 Pumping Speeds

Table 5．2 Pumping Speeds of Connections

5．3 The Principles of Vacuum Pumps

Table 5．3 Diffusion Pump Fluids

5．4 The Measurement of Low Pressures—Vacuum Gauges

Table 5．4 Vacuum Gauges

5．5 Getters

5．6 Static and Kinetic Vacuum Systems

5．7 Static Vacuum Systems—Arrangement

5．8 Static Vacuum Systems—Construction

5．9 Static Vacuum Systems—Procedure

Table 5．5 Typical Evacuation Schedule

5．10 Kinetic Vacuum Systems

5．11 Ultra-high Vacuum

5．12 Leaks

Appendix 1 Seals between Metal and Glass

Quartz-Metal Seals

Appendix 2 Spot-Welding

Appendix 3 Materials Important in Vacuum Technique

6 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

6．1 Electrical Measurements

6．2 Deflection Instruments for Direct Current

6．3 Ammeters and Voltmeters

Table 6．1 Accuracy of Electrical Instruments

6．4 Recording Instruments

6．5 Moving Coil Galvanometers

6．6 The Practical Use of Moving Coil Galvanometers

Table 6．2 Representative Galvanometer Sensitivities

6．7 Galvanometers of High Performance

6．8 Theory of Moving Coil Galvanometers

6．9 Deflection Amplifiers

6．10 D．C．Potentiometer and Bridge Measurements

6．11 A．C．Measurements

Table 6．3 Deflection Instruments for A．C．

6．12 A．C．Bridge Measurements

6．13 Valve Voltmeters

6．14 The Measurement of Small Currents

6．15 The Arrangement of Circuits for Small Current Measurements

6．16 The Choice of an Electrometer

6．17 Valves as Electrometers

6．18 The Production and Measurement of Magnetic Fields

6．19 Coreless Coils

6．20 Electromagnets

6．21 The Measurement of Magnetic Fields

Appendix to Chapter 6 Electric Motors

7 ELECTRONICS

7．1 Electronic Aids

7．2 Power Supplies

7．3 Amplifiers

7．4 The Triode Voltage Amplifier

7．5 Inter-Electrode Capacities and the Miller Effect

7．6 The Screen-grid Valves—Tetrode and Pentode

7．7 The Properties of a Pentode

7．8 The Complete Amplifying Stage

7．9 The Frequency Characteristics of R．C．Amplifier Stages

Table 7．1 Development of Pentodes

7．10 The Design of Amplifier Stages

7．11 The Feedback Principle

7．12 The Feedback Principle—Quantitative

7．13 The Cathode Follower

7．14＂Voltage＂and＂Current＂Feedback Amplifiers

7．15 Stability Limitation of the Feedback Principle

7．16 Balanced or Push-Pull Amplifiers

7．17 D．C．Amplifiers

7．18 The Valve as an Electrometer

7．19 Valve Oscillators

7．20 Tuned Circuit Oscillators

7．21 The Resistance-Capacity Oscillator

7．22 Aperiodic Feedback—Multivibrators

7．23 Pulse Operation of Valve Circuits

7．24 The Use of Diodes

7．25 Very Rapid Pulses,Transmission Lines

7．26 Semiconductor Electronics

Table 7．2 Semiconductor Devices

7．27 Transistors

7．28 Transistor Circuits—Amplifiers

7．29 Transistor Circuits—Laboratory Control Circuits

7．30 Transistor Circuits—Oscillators

7．31 Transistor Circuits—Relaxation Oscillators and Derivatives

7．32 Comparison of Transistors and Valves

Appendix to Chapter 7 Relay Systems

8 OPTICS AND PHOTOGKAPHY

8．1 Optics and Photography

8．2 Illumination

8．3 Brightness of an Object

Table 8．1 Quantities used in Analysis of Illumination

8．4 Brightness of an Image

8．5 Typical Illuminating Systems

Table 8．2 Light Sources

Table 8．3 Special and Improvised Light Sources

8．6 Light Sources

8．7 The Eye as an Optical Instrument

8．8 The Acuity of Vision

8．9 The Colour and Intensity Response of the Eye

8．10 The Behaviour of the Eye at Low Intensity—Ultimate Sensitivity

8．11 Image-Producing Optical Systems

8．12 Aberrations

8．13 Telescope Objectives

8．14 The Choice and Use of a Telescope

8．15 Microscope Objectives

Table 8．4 Typical Performance of Microscope Objectives

8．16 Illumination in the Microscope

8．17 The Use of the Microscope

8．18 Eyepieces

8．19 Photographic Objectives

8．20 Depth of Focus

Table 8．5 Representative Performances of Photographic Lenses

8．21 Projection Lenses

8．22 Reflecting Optical Systems

8．23 Anti-Reflection Coatings

Table 8．6．Optical Applications of Thin Films

8．24 Photography

8．25 The Quantitative Behaviour of Photographic Materials

8．26 The Reciprocity Law

8．27 Characteristics of Emulsions—Colour Sensitivity

8．28 Characteristics of Emulsions

Table 8．6 Typical Characteristics of Negative Materials

8．29 The Choice of a Photographic Material

8．30 The Manipulation of Photographic Materials in the Laboratory

8．31 Photometry—The Measurement of Light Intensity

8．32 Photographic Photometry

Table 8．7 Methods of Attenuating Light for Plate Calibration

Table 8．8 Detectors for Microphotometers

Appendix 1 The Setting Up of Optical Systems

Appendix 2 Optical Materials

Table 8．9 Refractive Properties of Glasses

9 THE DETECTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

9．1 Introduction

9．2 Photocathodes and Photoemissive Cells

9．3 Note on Photocathodes in Commercial Tubes

9．4 Photocells and Photomultipliers

9．5 Application of Photocells and Photomultipliers

9．6 Photoelectric Detectors in the Ultraviolet

9．7 Solid-state Photoelectric Detectors

Table 9．1 Solid-state Radiation Detectors

9．8 Non selective(thermal)Detectors

Appendix to Chapter 9 Note on the Comparison of Detectors for Small Amounts of Light

10 THE NATURAL LIMITS OF MEASUREMENT

10．1 The Natural Limits of Measurement

10．2 Thermal Agitation

10．3 Thermal Noise in Electrical Circuits

10．4 Thermal Motion in Galvanometer Measurements

10．5 Further Fluctuation Phenomena in Electrical Circuits

Table 10．1 Noise in Valves—Empirical Data

10．6 Flicker Noise and Semi-conductor noise

10．7 Examples．An Audio-Frequency Amplifier

10．8 A Radar Receiver

10．9 An Amplifier used in conjunction with an Ionisation Chamber

10．10 A Photocell used to detect Weak Light

10．11 The Coherent Rectifier System

11 SOME TECHNIQUES OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS

11．1 Ionisation by Ionising Particles

Table 11．1 Average Energy required to produce an Ion Pair

11．2 The Motion and Collection of Ions

11．3 Electron Collection Chambers

11．4 Ion-Collection Chambers

11．5 Gas Multiplication—Proportional Counters

11．6 The Geiger Counter

11．7 The Construction of Counters

11．8 The Geiger Counter in Use

11．9 Scintillation Counters

Table 11．2 Scintillators for Particle Detection

Table 11．3 Conversion Processes for γ-rays in Scintillator

11．10 Neutron Counting

11．11 Some Special Counting Methods

11．12 Coincidence Counting

11．13 Anti-coincidence Counting

11．14 Electronic Devices for Nuclear Research

11．15 Errors and Statistics in Counting

Table 11．4 Random Counting Rates for 0．1% Loss of Counts

11．16 The Cloud Chamber

11．17 The Bubble Chamber

11．18 Nuclear Track Emulsions

References

Index