1．INTRODUCTION TO MORPHOLOGY

1．1 Morphology

1．2 Principles of Descriptive Analysis

A．Descriptive Analysis Must Be Based upon What People Say

B．The Forms Are Primary,and the Usages Secondary

C．No Part of a Language Can Be Adequately Described without Reference to All Other Parts

D．Languages Are Constantly in the Process of Change

1．3 Relationship of Descriptive Linguistics to Historical and Comparative Linguistics

1．4 Terminology of Descriptive Linguistics

1．5 Arrangement of Contents of This Book

1．6 Language Problems in the Present Volume

2．THE IDENTIFICATION OF MORPHEMES

2．1 Morphemes as Minimal Units

2．11 Isolation of Morphemes by Comparing Forms

2．12 The Definition of the Morpheme

2．2 Principles Employed in the Identification of Morphemes

2．21 Principle 1

2．21．1 The Meaning of Principle 1

2．21．2 The Application of Principle 1

A．Steps in Procedure

B．Problems of Residues

C．The Tentative Nature of an Analyst＇s Correlations

D．Supplementary Problems Illustrative of Principle 1

2．22 Principle 2

2．22．1 The Meaning of Principle 2

2．22．2 The Application of Principle 2

A．Where the Sounds Involved Exhibit Some Phonetic Similarities

B．Where the Sounds Involved May Not Exhibit Phonetic Similarities

C．Where Sequences of Phonemes Are Involved

D．Problems Illustrative of Principle 2

E．Steps in Procedure for Problems Involving Principle 2

F．Writing up the Answers to Problems

G．Types of Phonological Environment Described in Terms of Processes

1．Assimilation

2．Dissimilation

3．Assimilation of Tonemes

4．Loss of Consonant Phonemes

5．Loss of Vowel Phonemes

6．Palatalization

H．Supplementary Problems Illustrative of Principle 2

2．23 Principle 3

2．23．1 The Meaning of Principle 3

2．23．2 The Application of Principle 3

A．Determination of Allomorphs by Complementary Distribution

B．Basis of Complementation

C．Degree of Phonological Difference between Allomorphs

D．Basic and Nonbasic Allomorphs

E．Types of Zero

F．Supplementary Problems Illustrative of Principle 3

2．24 Principle 4

2．24．1 The Meaning of Principle 4

2．24．2 The Application of Principle 4

2．25 Principle 5

A．Definition of Homophonous Forms

B．Definition of Related Forms

C．Types of Related Areas of Meaning

D．Types of Distributional Differences

E．Problems Illustrative of Principle 5

2．26 Principle 6

A．Condition 1

B．Condition 2

C．Condition 3

3．TYPES OF MORPHEMES

3．1 Internal Composition of Morphemes

3．11 Types of Phonemes Which Compose Morphemes

3．11．1 Morphemes Consisting of Segmental Phonemes

3．11．2 Morphemes Consisting of Suprasegmental Phonemes

3．11．3 Morphemes Consisting of Segmental and Suprasegmental Phonemes

3．12 Different Shapes and Sizes of Morphemes

3．13 Formal Relationships of the Parts of Morphemes

3．2 Formal Relationships of Morphemes to Each Other

3．21 Structural Relationships of Morphemes to Each Other

3．21．1 Additive Morphemes

3．21．2 Replacive Morphemes

3．21．3 Subtractive Morphemes

3．22 Positional Relationships of Morphemes to Each Other

4．THE DISTRIBUTION OF MORPHEMES

4．1 Significance of the Distribution of Morphemes

4．2 Types of Morphemes as Determined by Their Distribution

A．Bound vs．Free Forms

B．Roots vs．Nonroots

C．Roots vs．Stems

D．Nuclei vs．Nonnuclei

E．Nuclear vs．Peripheral Structures

F．Morphemes of the Same Order vs．Morphemes of Different Orders

G．Mutually Exclusive Morphemes

H．Mutually Obligatory Morphemes

I．Obligatory vs．Nonobligatory Morphemes

J．Closing vs．Nonclosing Morphemes

4．3 Formal Combining of Morphemes

4．4 Immediate Constituents

4．41 Significance of Immediate Constituents

4．42 Positional Relationships between Immediate Constituents

A．Continuous Nuclear and Peripheral Immediate Constituents

1．Continuous Nuclear and Peripheral Immediate Constituents

a．With All Successive Peripheral Constituents on One Side of the Nucleus

b．With Successive Peripheral Constituents on More than One Side of or within the Nucleus

2．Discontinuous Immediate Constituents－Nuclear,Peripheral,or Both

B．Combinations of More than Two Immediate Constituents

4．43 Principles of Procedure in Determining Immediate Constituents

4．43．1 Principle 1

4．43．2 Principle 2

4．43．3 Principle 3

4．43．4 Principle 4

4．43．5 Principle 5

4．44 Functional Relationships between Immediate Constituents

4．44．1 Endocentric vs．Exocentric Constructions

4．44．2 Coordinate vs．Subordinate vs．Noncoordinate and Nonsubordinate Constructions

4．5 Types of Morphological Structure

4．6 Primary Structural Layers

4．7 The Limits of Morphological Structures

4．71 Structural Contrasts

4．72 Phonological Criteria for Establishing the Limits of Morphological Structures

4．73 Distributional Criteria for Establishing the Limits of Morphological Structures

4．74 Overlapping between Phonological and Morphological Criteria

4．75 Overlapping between Morphological and Syntactic Distributional Data

4．76 The Practical Limits of the Word

5．STRUCTURAL CLASSES

5．1 Types of Structural Classes

5．11 Form Classes

5．12 Sequence Classes

5．13 Distribution Classes

5．13．1 Definitions of Significant Features

5．13．2 Types of Distributional Arrangements

5．13．21 Distributional Arrangements in Single Sequence Classes

5．13．21．1 Forms Occurring in Determiner-Determined Series

5．13．21．11 Structural Series with No Subclasses of Determiner and No Subclasses of Determined

5．13．21．12 Structural Series with Subclasses of Determiner and No Subclasses of Determined

5．13．21．13 Structural Series with No Subclasses of Determiner but Subclasses of Determined

5．13．21．14 Structural Series with Subclasses of Determiner and Subclasses of Determined

5．13．21．2 Forms Not Occurring in Determiner-Determined Series

5．13．22 Distributional Arrangements in Multiple Sequence Classes

5．2 Systems of Structural Classes

6．THE MEANING OF MORPHEMES AND SEQUENCES OF MORPHEMES

6．1 Semantic Principles

6．11 Principle 1

6．12 Principle 2

A．Nonlinguistic Environments

1．Objective Environments

2．Subjective Environments

B．Linguistic Environments

1．Structural Environments

2．Contextual Environments

6．13 Principle 3

6．2 The Use of Symbols

6．3 Definability of Meaning

6．4 Procedures in Determining the Meanings of Morphemes

6．5 The Labeling of Morphemes

6．6 Grammatical Categories Expressed by Bound Forms

6．7 The Meaning of Grammatical Sequences

7．FIELD PROCEDURES

7．1 Monolingual Approach

7．2 Bilingual Approach

7．21 The Data

7．21．1 Simple Object Words

7．21．2 Object Words in Possible Morphological Categories

7．21．3 Simple Process Words

7．21．4 Process Words in Possible Morphological Categories

7．21．5 Combinations of Object and Process Words

7．21．6 Texts

7．22 Recording the Data

7．23 The Informant

7．23．1 Dialect Differences among Informants

7．23．2 Qualifications of Informants

7．23．3 Handling of Informants

8．ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

8．1 Relationship of Analytical to Field Procedures

8．2 Steps in Analytical Procedure

8．21 Initial Observations

8．21．1 Phonetic Observations

8．21．2 Identificational Observations

8．21．3 Distributional Observations

8．22 Filing of Data

8．22．1 Purpose of Filing Data

8．22．2 Form of the Filing Slip

8．22．3 Relationship of Filing to Analysis

8．22．4 Nature and Quantity of the Data to be Filed

8．22．5 Number of Files

8．22．6 Form of the Structural File

8．22．61 Morphophonemic Section

8．22．62 Morphology Section

8．3 Determining the Relative Order of Morphemes

8．4 Use of Arbitrary Symbols in Identifying Forms

9．THE DESCRIPTIVE STATEMENT OF THE MORPHOLOGY

9．1 Structural Difficulties

9．11 Illustrative Outlines

9．11．1 Chichewa,by Mark Hanna Watkins

9．11．2 Chiricahua Apache,by Harry Hoijer

9．11．3 Delaware,by C．F．Voegelin

9．11．4 French,by Robert A．Hall,Jr．

9．11．5 Hebrew,by Zellig S．Harris

9．11．6 Potawatomi,by Charles F．Hockett

9．11．7 Southern Paiute,by Edward Sapir

9．11．8 Tzeltal,by Marianna C．Slocum

9．11．9 Yuma,by A．M．Halpern

9．12 Discussion of Illustrative Outlines

9．2 Technical Difficulties

9．21 Systems of Outlining

9．22 Terminology

9．23 Types of Descriptive Statements

9．3 Illustrative Language Problems

APPENDIX

Part I:Supplementary Problems

A．Problems Supplementary to Section 2．22．2

A．1 Assimilation and Dissimilation

A．2 Medial Voicing

A．3 Final Unvoicing

A．4 Assimilation and Dissimilation of Tonemes

A．5 Reduction of Word-Medial Consonant Clusters

A．6 Reduction of Word-Final Consonant Clusters

A．7 Reduction of Vowel Sequences

A．8 ＂Weakening＂of Consonants

A．9 ＂Weakening＂of Vowels in Unstressed Syllables

A．10 Loss of Vowels in Unstressed Syllables

A．11 Differences of Vowel Length Due to Open and Closed Syllables

A．12 Compensatory Lengthening

A．13 Developed Phonemes

A．14 Palatalization

A．15 Nasalization

A．16 Verner＇s Phenomenon

A．17 Metathesis

B．Problems Supplementary to Section 2．23．2

C．Problems Supplementary to Chapter 3

D．Problems Supplementary to Chapter 5

E．Problems Supplementary to Chapter 6

Part II:Table of Phonetic Symbols

Part III:Phonemic Writing of English

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX