CHAPTER 1 Introduction

1．1．The use of X-rays for microscopy

1．2．Contact microradiography

1．3．Reflexion X-ray microscopy

1．4．Point projection with X-rays

1．5．Scanning methods

1．6．Comparison with optical and electron microscopy

1．6．1．Penetration and absorption in matter

1．6．2．X-ray emission analysis

1．6．3．Microdiffraction

1．6．4．Stereomicro-scopy

1．6．5．Resolving-power

1．7．Scope and applications of X-ray microscopy

1．7．1．Materials opaque to light

1．7．2．Structure of thick specimens

1．7．3．Living organisms

1．7．4．Quantitative microanalysis in biology

1．7．5．Quantitative microanalysis of inorganic specimens

1．8．Other X-ray methods

1．8．1．＇Darkfield＇imaging by the Berg-Barrett method

1．8．2．Optical reconstruction of lattice structure

1．8．3．Diffraction microscopy

CHAPTER 2 Contact Microradiography

2．1．Introduction

2．2．Absorption of X-rays in matter

2．2．1．Absorption coefficients

2．2．2．Fluorescence radiation

2．2．3．Absorption edges

2．3．Optimum conditions for microradiography

2．3．1．Wavelength and specimen thickness

2．3．2．Choice of characteristic,continuous or fluorescent radiation

2．4．Geometrical blurring of the micro-image

2．5．Photographic and optical requirements

2．5．1．High resolution emulsions

2．5．2．Optical enlarging system

2．6．Ultimate resolving-power of the contact method

2．6．1．Unsharpness in image formation

2．6．2．Image spread

2．6．3．Size and aggregation of photographic grains

2．6．4．Resolving-power of the enlarging system

2．6．5．Contrast requirements

2．6．6．Ultimate resolution

2．7．Associated techniques of microradiography

2．7．1．Stereo-microradiography

2．7．2．Microfluoroscopy

2．7．3．Electron microradiography

CHAPTER 3 Microscopy by Point Projection

3．1．Introduction

3．2．The geometry of projection

3．3．Fresnel diffraction

3．4．Experimental systems

3．4．1．Camera obscura

3．4．2．Point anode tube

3．4．3．Window target tube

3．5．Electron optical limitations

3．5．1．Cathode emission

3．5．2．Lens aberrations

3．6．Target limitations

3．6．1．Production and absorption of X-rays

3．6．2．Thermal dissipation

3．6．3．Electron scattering

3．6．4．Choice of target material

3．7．Photographing the image

3．8．Comparison of the contact and projection methods

3．8．1．Resolution

3．8．3．Field of view

3．8．3．Exposure-time

3．8．4．Experimental convenience

3．9．Intermediate magnifications

3．9．1．Arbitrary magnification

3．9．2．The times-two method

CHAPTER 4 Reflexion X-Ray Microscopy:Mirror Systems

4．1．Total reflexion of X-rays

4．2．Dioptric focusing

4．3．Focusing by total reflexion

4．4．Aberrations of a cylindrical mirror of circular section

4．4．1．Spherical aberration

4．4．2．Coma

4．4．3．Obliquity of the field

4．4．4．Curvature of the field

4．5．Astigmatism and distortion

4．6．Compound systems of circular mirrors

4．7．Compound systems of figured mirrors

4．8．Practical design of the reflexion X-ray microscope

4．8．1．Experimental arrangements

4．9．Practical limitations

4．10．The ultimate limit set by diffraction

CHAPTER 5 Reflexion X-Ray Microscopy:Curved Crystals

5．1．Efficiency of Bragg reflexion

5．2．Focusing at glancing incidence

5．2．1．Crystals curved at right angles to the plane of incidence

5．3．Focusing at near normal incidence

5．4．Focusing by ring mirrors

CHAPTER 6 X-Ray Absorption Microanalysis

6．1．Microanalysis by differential absorption

6．1．1．Measurements at an absorption edge

6．1．2．Microweighing and microanalysis

6．2．Dry weight determination

6．2．1．Principles of the method

6．2．2．Microphotometry

6．2．3．Experimental errors

6．2．4．Resolving-power and limit of detection

6．2．5．Improvements in the contact method

6．2．6．Water content

6．3．Absorption micro-spectrometry by the contact method

6．3．1．Procedure

6．3．2．The spectrometer

6．3．3．Experimental errors

6．4．Photo-graphic considerations

6．4．1．The characteristic curve

6．4．2．Grain size and granularity

6．4．3．Variation of sensitivity with wave-length

6．4．4．Equivalent effective wavelength

6．5．Absorption analysis by the projection method

6．5．1．X-ray tube and spectrometer

6．5．2．The recording system

6．5．3．Errors in counter recording

6．5．4．Comparison with the contact method

CHAPTER 7 X-Ray Emission Microanalysis

7．1．Emission microspectrometry

7．1．1．Experimental conditions for direct excitation

7．1．2．Corrections;limits of accuracy

7．1．3．Discrimination between elements

7．1．4．Comparison with other methods

7．2．The static spot microanalyser

7．3．The scanning microanalyser or flying-spot X-ray microscope

7．3．1．Apparatus

7．3．2．Applications

7．4．Fluorescent microspectrometry

CHAPTER 8 Production of X-Rays

8．1．Electron emission and focusing

8．1．1．General requirements

8．1．2．Thermionic emission

8．1．3．Field emission

8．2．Heat dissipation in the target

8．2．1．Thick target

8．2．2．Thin target

8．2．3．Needle target

8．2．4．Heat balance in a thin target

8．3．Electron range in the target

8．4．Spectral distribution

8．5．Efficiency of X-ray production

8．5．1．The continuous spectrum

8．5．2．The characteristic spectrum

8．6．Angular distribution

8．7．Filtration and other means of monochromatization

8．7．1．Filters

8．7．2．Self-filtration

8．7．3．Total reflexion

8．7．4．Crystal monochromators

CHAPTER 9 Specimen Preparation Techniques

9．1．Biological and medical specimens

9．1．1．Freeze-drying

9．1．2．Embedding and sectioning

9．1．3．Injection and staining

9．1．4．Mounting the specimen for contact microradiography

9．1．5．Mounting the specimen for projection or reflexion X-ray microscopy

9．1．6．Living organisms

9．2．Metallurgical and industrial specimens

9．2．1．Sectioning by grinding

9．2．2．Shadow-casting and replica methods

CHAPTER 10 Techniques of Contact Microradiography

10．1．Apparatus for contact microradiography

10．1．1．General considerations

10．1．2．Apparatus for hard radiation(<2?)

10．1．3．Apparatus for soft radiation(2-10?)

10．1．4．Apparatus for ultra-soft radiation(>10?)

10．2．Recording the microradiograph

10．2．1．Photographic considerations

10．2．2．Optical enlargement

10．3．Stereoscopic microradiography

10．4．Microfluoroscopy

CHAPTER 11 Techniques of Projection Microscopy

11．1．The electron gun

11．2．The focusing system

11．2．1．Single-stage demagnification

11．2．2．Two-stage demagnification

11．2．3．Astigmatism and its correction

11．2．4．Comparison of electro-static and magnetic lenses

11．3．Constructional details

11．3．1．Magnetic lens model

11．3．2．Electrostatic lenses

11．4．Mechanical and electrical stability

11．5．Electrical supplies

11．6．Vacuum requirements

11．7．Microscope alinement

11．8．Microscope focusing

11．9．Photographic recording

11．10．Stereographic projection

11．11．Transmission targets

11．12．Maintenance of projection X-ray microscopes

11．13．Commercial models of the projection microscope

CHAPTER 12 Applications of X-Ray Microscopy in Biology and Medicine

12．1．Living specimens

12．1．1．Rabbit

12．2．1．Insects

12．1．3．Ciné X-ray microscopy

12．1．4．Radiation dosage to the specimen

12．2．Thick sections

12．3．Thin sections

12．4．Botanical specimens

12．5．Quantitative applications

CHAPTER 13 Inorganic Applications of X-Ray Microscopy

13．1．Metallurgy

13．1．1．Iron and steel-segregations and inclusions

13．1．2．Cast iron

13．1．3．Iron ores and sinters

13．1．4．Other ores and minerals

13．1．5．Light metal alloys

13．1．6．Diffusion

13．1．7．Spot welding

13．1．8．Castings

13．1．9．Other metallurgical applications

13．2．Industrial applications

13．2．1．Paper

13．2．2．Fibres and fabrics

13．2．3．Geology

13．2．4．Miscellaneous

CHAPTER 14 Microdiffraction

14．1．X-ray tubes

14．1．1．Micro-focus X-ray tubes

14．1．2．Reflexion types

14．2．Cameras and methods

14．2．1．Transmission

14．2．2．Back reflexion

14．2．3．Forward reflexion

14．2．4．Divergent beam

14．2．5．Selected area

14．2．6．Powder cameras

14．2．7．Moving specimen and film types

14．3．Conclusion

CHAPTER 15 Some New Experimental Methods

15．1．The scanning system as an X-ray image intensifier

15．2．Other forms of image intensifier

15．3．Image conversion X-ray microscope

15．4．Projection X-ray microscopy:focusing by back-scattered electrons

15．5．Projection X-ray microscopy:focusing by forward-scattered electrons

15．6．Contact microradiography with electron microscope enlargement

COMMENTS ADDED IN PROOF

APPENDIX Absorption and Emission Data

A．1．X-ray mass-absorption coefficients of certain elements and of dry air for the wavelength range 0．710-8．321 ？

A．2．X-ray mass absorption coefficients of certain elements for the wavelength range 8．34-44 ?

A．3．Principal emission lines of the K-series(wavelengths in ? units)

A．4．Principal emission lines of the L-series(wavelengths in ? units)

REFERENCES

INDEX