PART ONE Intellectual Framework and the Cultural Background

Foreign Policy and the International Environment

1. There Are Many Policymakers

2. Consensus versus Debate: Successive Periods of Policy

3. Reconciling Foreign Policy Goals: The Priority of Security

4. The Implications of Security's Preeminence

5. The Role of National Interests

6. Decision Making, Bureaucracies, and Rationality: Some Distinctions

7. The Nature of the State System and Its Implications

8. The Systems Effects of Policy Choices

9. Qualifications to the Argument

1O. Summing Up

2 The Unique American Experience

1. The Effects of Geographic Isolation

2. The Effects of Historical Experience

3. The Hundred Years' Peace (1815-1914)

4. U.S. Policy (1815-1914)

5. The Effects of the Domestic Environment: From Immigration

6. The Effects of the Domestic Environment: On the American Political Process

7. Summing Up

3 The American Approach to Problems

1. Attitudes About Government and Politics: Americans Know the Way

2. Attitudes About Government and Politics: Idealism Should Be Practical

3. Attitudes Toward the "Lessons of the Past"

4. Effects of These Attitudes on Foreign Affairs

5. The Conceptual Basis of the American Involvement in the Cold War

6. The Three Postwar Formulas of U.S. Policy

7. Applying the Containment Concept

8. The Formulas Lead to Vietnam

9. The Paucity of American Strategic Thought and Its Penalties

10. Summing Up

4 Phase 1: Designing Policy (The Cardinal Principles)

1. The Policy Process

2. The Cardinal Principles

3. Past-Future Linkages

4. Third-Party Influences

5. Relating the First Two Cardinal Principles

6. Counterbalancing National Interests

7. The Conservation of Enemies

8. Relating the Second Two Cardinal Principles and Linking Them to the First Two

9. Summing Up

5 Phase 2: Implementing Policy (The Operational Context)

1. Identify Actors: Who Is Involved?

2. Determine Objectives: What Do They Want? What Might We?

3. Analyze Capability: What Is the Operational Power Relationship?

4. Choose Orientation: What Involvement Is Necessary?

5. Summing Up

PART TWO How Washington Makes Foreign Policy

6 The President and Congress

1. Formal Factors: The President

2. Formal Factors: The Congress

3. The Growth of Congressional Assertiveness

4. Congress and International Agreements

5. Congress and Intelligence Operations

6. Congress and Military Force

7. Congress, Nuclear Nonproliferation, and Foreign Aid

8. Summing Up

7 Bureaucratic Politics

1. The Role of Standard Operating Procedures

2. Problems in Information Processing

3. Fragmentation

4. Bureaucratic Competition

5. Characteristics of Bureaucratic Policymaking

6. Higher-Level Decisions and Small Groups

7. The President and the Bureaucratic Process

8. Summing Up

8 Public Opinion, Interest Groups, and Policymakers

1. Five Characteristics of Public Opinion

2. The Role of the Mass Media

3. The Adequacy and Fairness Problem and Policymaker-Media Tensions

4. The Influence of Public Opinion

5. Interest Groups: The General Rule

6. Interest Groups: Exceptions to the Rule?

7. Summing Up

9 The Departmnet of state

1. Departmental Organization and Structure

2. The Secretary of State

3. The Second and Third Echelons

4. The Bureaus and the Associated Agencies

5. The Overseas Missions

6. The Department in Operation

7. Departmental Decision Making

8. Summing Up

10 The National Security System

1. The National Security Act

2. The Evolution of the Department of Defense

3. The Intelligence Community

4. The Cloak-and-Dagger Issue: Covert Operations

5. National Security Decision Making and Presidential Styles

6. American Policy, the Shah, and Khomeini: A Study in Confusion

7. Summing Up

PART THREE Design and Implementation: The American Policy Record

11 Extending the Security Perimeter

1. The First Century

2. Toward a Larger Role

3. A Watershed: The Spanish-American War

4. World War I

5. The Aborted Peace Settlement

6. The 1920s and 1930s: Unilateralism

7. The First Three Neutrality Acts

8. Summing Up

12 In Pursuit of a Global Role

1. War Clouds Gather

2. The Final Pre-World War ii Debates

3. World War ii: Political versus Military Issues

4. The Coming of the Cold War

5. Extending the Containment Perimeter

6. Summing Up

13 Berlin, Cuba, and Vietnam

1. The Berlin Crisis of 1958-1959

2. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962

3. The Road to the Vietnam War Commitment

4. The Sino-Soviet Split--Disregarded

5. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution and Commitment

6. Confusion at Three Levels

7. Nixon--and (Eventually) War's End

8. Summing Up

14 Detente and Afterwards

1. Nixon, Kissinger, and a New Approach

2. Rapprochement with China

3. Impact of the China Card on Soviet-American Relations

4. The Advent of Detente

5. Effects of D6tente on the Middle East

6. The Carter Administration

7. Evaluation

8. Summing Up

15 Postlude and Prelude

1. What Parts One, Two, and Three Argue and Why

2. American Style--Foreign Style

3. Looking Ahead at Part Four

PART FOUR Problems and Issues Facing the United States

16 United States-Soviet Relations

1. The Problem of U.S.-Soviet Relations

2. Alternative American Strategic Concepts of Soviet Behavior

3. A Soviet Perspective

4. A Corrected View of Soviet Behavior

5. Carter and Reagan Deal with the Soviets

6. Key Issues in U.S.-Soviet Relations

7. Summing Up

17 Europe the Divided Continent

1. Europe: Its Unity in Diversity

2. Three Interlinked Problems

3. Problem One: Europe's Arbitrary Division

4. Problem Two: The Advanced Soviet Position and Its Political-Military Implications

5. Problem Three: Lack of Uniformity of U.S.-European Interests

6. Issues in United States-European Relations: Europe's Division

7. Issues in United States-European Relations: The Soviet Threat

8. Issues in United States-European Relations: Diversityof Interests

9. Summing Up

18 On Its Own A Stable Asia?

1. The Strategic Problem: How to Ensure an Asian Security Balance

2. The Chinese Relationship

3. The Japanese Relationship

4. The Indian and Pakistani Relationship

5. Nixon-Kissinger-Ford: Designing a New Approach

6. Nixon-Kissinger-Ford: Implementing a New Approach

7. Carter and the Shift Toward a Lesser Presence

8. The Reagan Administration and Beyond

9. Summing Up

19 Area in Ferment: The Middle East

1. Five Interlinked Problems

2. Background: The Arab-Israeli Wars of 1956 and 1967

3. The Nixon-Ford Policy and Shuttle Diplomacy

4. The Rise of the PLO and the Lebanon Connection

5. Carter and the Camp David Accords

6. The Oil Problem and the Stability Problem

7. The Reagan Administration and Beyond

8. Summing Up

20 The Developing Nations: Africa and Latin America

1. Three Interlinked Problems

2. The Historical Legacy: Latin America

3. The Historical Legacy: Africa

4. African Affairs Under Nixon, Ford, and Carter

5. Latin American Affairs Under Nixon, Ford, and Carter

6. The Reagan Administration and Beyond

7. Summing Up

21 Mushrooming Technology and the Changing Global Environment

1. The Technological Revolution

2. The Quality of Life on Planet Earth

3. Terrorism

4. The Seas

5. Space

6. Summing Up

PART FIVE Policy for the Time Ahead

22 Conclusions and Evaluation

1. The Theory Reviewed

2. The Substantive Analysis Reviewed

3. East-West and Security Concerns

4. North-South and Economic Development Concerns

5. Final Thoughts

Index