1 Introduction toElectronics

1.1 ELECTRONICS TODAY

1.2 THE STUDY OF ELECTRONICS

Multiple Small Exposures

Study Techniques

1.3 A WORD ABOUT CURRENT

1.4 COMPUTER SIMULATION

Sample Circuit Simulation Programs

Using Computer Programs

PART 1 DIODES

2The Ideal Diode

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 THE IDEAL DIODE

2.3 DIODE-RESISTOR CIRCUITS

Example 2.1 Simple Diode-Resistor Circuits

Example 2.2 Single Loop Circuit

Example 2.3 Multiple Resistor Circuit

2.4 IS A DIODE ON OR OFF?—TWO APPROACHES

Current Test

Voltage Test

Example 2.4 Diode Test

2.5 CURRENT TRAFFIC CONTROL—DIODE LOGIC

A Diode Logic Circuit

2.6 AC TO DC CONVERSION—THE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

Example 2.5 Half-Wave Rectifier Examples

AC-DC Conversion

Example 2.6 Finding DC Values

2.7 AC TO DC CONVERSION—THE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

The Diode Bridge Circuit

2.8 DIODE LIMITERS （CLIPPERS）

Top Clipping

Example 2.7 Diode Limiters—Top Clipping

Bottom Clipping

Example 2.8 Diode Limiters—Bottom Clipping

Symmetric Clipping

Example 2.9 Symmetric Clipping Circuits

3The Real Diode

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 DIODE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE（THE Ⅰ-Ⅴ CURVE）

3.3 THE REAL DIODE

The Improved Diode Model

An Important Note

Current Test

Example 3.1 The Current Test Ⅰ

Example 3.2 The Current Test Ⅱ

Voltage Test

Example 3.3 The Voltage Test

3.4 DIODE CIRCUITS WITH REAL DIODES

The Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit

Example 3.4 The Half-Wave Rectifier

The Full-Wave Rectifier

Example 3.5 The Full-Wave Rectifier

The Clipping Circuit

Example 3.6 Two-Sided Limiting with Real Diodes

3.5 DIODE RESISTANCE

3.6 DIODE RATINGS—THE BREAKDOWN REGION

The ON Diode

Example 3.7 Approximating Power

The Breakdown Region

Example 3.8 Breakdown

3.7 COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE DIODES—THE DIODE DATA SHEET

Catalog Data

Example 3.9 Diode Selection

Diode Data Sheets

The Diode Reverse Current

Reverse Recovery Time

Example 3.10 Using the Data Sheet

3.8 DIODE TESTING

A Bad Diode （Using the VOM）

A Bad Diode （Using the DMM）

3.9 DIODE CIRCUIT TROUBLESHOOTING

Example 3.11 Troubleshooting the Diode Limiter

Multimeter Testing

4 Diode—ReactiveCircuits

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 THE CAPACITOR AS BATTERY

Example 4.1 Capacitor Discharge

4.3 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITOR

Ripple

Example 4.2 Half-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Ⅰ

Example 4.3 Half-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Ⅱ

rms Ripple Factor

4.4 THE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITOR

Example 4.4 Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor

Rectifier with Transformer

Example 4.5 Bridge Rectifier with Transformer

The Center-Tapped Transformer

Example 4.6 Center-Tapped Transformer Rectifier

4.5 DIODE CURRENT RATINGS

Half-Wave Rectifier

Example 4.7 Diode Currents

Example 4.8 Determining the Diode On-Time

Full-Wave Rectifiers

Diode Current Ratings

4.6 THE PEAK DETECTOR

Example 4.9 Peak Detector

4.7 THE DIODE AM DEMODULATOR

Example 4.10 AM Demodulation

4.8 DIODE CLAMPING CIRCUITS

Example 4.11 Clamping Circuits

4.9 THE VOLTAGE DOUBLER

4.10 DIODE-INDUCTOR CIRCUIT （FLYBACK）

Flyback Prevention

4.11 TROUBLESHOOTING DIODE-CAPACITOR CIRCUITS

The Capacitor

Example 4.12 Troubleshooting

Example 4.13 Troubleshooting Ⅱ

5 The Zener Diode—VoltageRegulation

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 THE ZENER DIODE

Zener Diode Basics

The Real Zener Diode

5.3 ZENER DIODE CIRCUITS

Example 5.1 Zener Circuit

Zener Diode-Resistor Load Circuit

Is the Zener Diode in Breakdown?—An Alternate Approach

Example 5.2 Zener Diode—Resistor Circuit Ⅰ

Minimum Load Resistance

Example 5.3 Zener Diode—Resistor Circuit Ⅱ

5.4 ZENER CLIPPER CIRCUITS

Example 5.4 Zener Clipper

5.5 ZENER VOLTAGE REGULATOR CIRCUIT

Example 5.5 Zener Regulator—Minimum Load

Example 5.6 Zener Regulator—Regulator Resistor

5.6 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT VOLTAGE REGULATORS

5.7 TROUBLESHOOTING ZENER DIODES AND CIRCUITS

Example 5.7 Troubleshooting a Zener Diode Circuit

6 Special-PurposeDiodes andOpto-Electrical Devices

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Specialized Diodes

Troubleshooting Specialized Diodes

6.2 THE GERMANIUM DIODE

Example 6.1 The Germanium Diode

6.3 THE SCHOTTKY DIODE

Example 6.2 The Schottky Diode

6.4 THE TUNNEL DIODE

Example 6.3 The Tunnel Diode Circuit

6.5 THE VARACTOR DIODE

Example 6.4 The Varactor Diode

6.6 THE PHOTO DIODE

The Photoconductive Mode

Example 6.5 The Photoconductive Cell

The Light Spectrum

Example 6.6 Frequency and Wavelength

Commercial Photo Diodes Data Sheets

The Photovoltaic Mode

Example 6.7 The Photovoltaic Mode

6.7 THE PHOTORESISTOR （PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL）

Example 6.8 The Photoresistor

6.8 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES （LED）

LED Basics

Example 6.9 A Bad LED Design

The Seven-Segment Display

6.9 THE PHOTO TRANSISTOR AND OPTO-ISOLATOR

The Photo Transistor

The Opto-Isolator （Opto-Coupler）

Fiber Optics

PART 2 BIPOLAR UNCTION TRANSISTORS （BJT）

7 The NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 BJT STATES OF OPERATION

Overview

The Active State

Example 7.1 Transistor Current Gain, β

Example 7.2 Emitter Current-Collector Current Relations

7.3 TRANSISTOR RATINGS

Transistor Power

Base Collector Breakdown （VCBO）

7.4 SIMPLE DC TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS（IB CONTROL）

Example 7.3 IB Control with Base Resistor

Example 7.4 IB Control with Base Supply Voltage

7.5 THE COLLECTOR RESISTOR

Example 7.5 Collector Resistor

7.6 THE CUT-OFF AND SATURATION STATES

CUT-OFF

SATURATION

Example 7.6 Base Supply Voltage and Saturation Ⅰ

Example 7.7 Base Supply Voltage and Saturation Ⅱ

Example 7.8 Base Resistor and Saturation Ⅰ

Example 7.9 Base Resistor and Saturation Ⅱ

Example 7.10 Collector Resistor and Saturation Ⅰ

Example 7.11 Collector Resistor and Saturation Ⅱ

Example 7.12 Collector Supply Voltage and Saturation Ⅰ

Example 7.13 Collector Supply Voltage and Saturation Ⅱ

7.7 DETERMINING THE STATE OF A TRANSISTOR

Example 7.14 Determining the State of a Transistor Ⅰ

Example 7.15 Determining the State of a Transistor Ⅱ

Example 7.16 Determining the State of a Transistor Ⅲ

7.8 DC TRANSISTOR DATA SHEET

8Troubleshooting

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Temporary Breadboard Building

Prototype Building

Repairing a Circuit That Once Worked

8.2 DC TROUBLESHOOTING, BRIEFLY

Recording the Estimated and Measured Voltages

Example 8.1 Recording Estimated Voltages

Example 8.2 Recording the Measured Voltages

8.3 THE COMPLETE DC TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURE

Troubleshoot the Circuit

Locate the Problem

Example 8.3 DC Troubleshooting Ⅰ

Example 8.4 DC Troubleshooting Ⅱ

Example 8.5 DC Troubleshooting Ⅲ

Example 8.6 DC Troubleshooting Ⅳ

Example 8.7 DC Troubleshooting Ⅴ

Summary of Examples

8.4 TYPES OF COMPONENT FAILURES

Resistor Failures

Transistor Failures

Open Circuit Failures in Transistors

Short Circuit Failures in Transistors

8.5 THE UNIVERSAL TRANSISTOR TEST CIRCUIT （UTTC）

Determining if a Transistor Is Good or Bad with the UTTC

Finding β3 with the UTTC

8.6 DC TROUBLESHOOTING EXAMPLES

Example 8.8 DC Troubleshooting Ⅵ

Example 8.9 DC Troubleshooting Ⅶ

Example 8.10 DC Troubleshooting Ⅷ

Example 8.11 DC Troubleshooting Ⅸ

Example 8.12 DC Troubleshooting Ⅹ

8.7 TROUBLESHOOTING IN THE LABORATORY

Why Not Current Measurements?

Tips on Using the Temporary Breadboard in the Lab

Common Problems in Using the Temporary Breadboards

8.8 DC TROUBLESHOOTING ON THE JOB

Obtaining the Circuit Diagram

Making Enough Copies of the Circuit Diagram

9 Biasing for Linear Applications

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 BASE VOLTAGE BIASING （VB CONTROL）

Example 9.1 VB Control

9.3 THE COLLECTOR RESISTOR

Example 9.2 VB Control with Collector Resistor

Example 9.3 Comparison of IB and VB Control

Example 9.4 VB Control, Rc Variations

Example 9.5 Variable Base Voltage Biasing

9.4 THE VOLTAGE DIVIDER

Example 9.6 The Voltage Divider

Example 9.7 Approximate Voltage Divider with Load

9.5 SELF-BIASING THE TRANSISTOR

Example 9.8 Self-Biasing Circuit

9.6 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Example 9.9 Voltage Amplification

Example 9.10 Eect of Rcon Voltage Amplification

9.7 EXACT BASE VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS

The Thevenin Approach

Example 9.11 Thevenin Equivalent Ⅰ

Example 9.12 Thevenin Equivalent Ⅱ

Voltage Divider Versus the Exact Thevenin Approach

9.8 DC TROUBLESHOOTING

Voltage Divider Problems

VB-Control Transistor Problems

Transistor Failures

Example 9.13 DC Troubleshooting

10 The Common-Emitter Amplifier

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Example 10.1 DC and AC Signal Components

10.2 DC BIAS LEVELS

Biasing

Example 10.2 Bias Level Determination

DC Bias and Output Voltage Limits

Example 10.3 Maximum Voltage Swing Ⅰ

Example 10.4 Maximum Voltage Swing Ⅱ

10.3 THE AC BEHAVIOR OF THE TRANSISTOR

Example 10.5 Small-Signal AC Emitter Resistor

10.4 THE COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Example 10.6 The Common-Emitter Amplifier Ⅰ

Example 10.7 The Common-Emitter Amplifier Ⅱ

10.5 THE EMITTER BYPASS CAPACITOR

The Capacitor

The Emitter Bypass Capacitor

Example 10.8 The Emitter Bypass Capacitor

10.6 INPUT CAPACITOR COUPLING—THE SELF-BIASED CIRCUIT

Example 10.9 The Input Coupling Capacitor

10.7 THE LOAD RESISTOR

Example 10.10 The Load Resistor

10.8 TROUBLESHOOTING

Example 10.11 Troubleshooting Ⅰ

Example 10.12 Troubleshooting Ⅱ

Example 10.13 Troubleshooting Ⅲ

Example 10.14 Troubleshooting Ⅳ

Example 10.15 Troubleshooting Ⅴ

11 The Box Model

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 THE Box MODEL

The Load Resistor

Example 11.1 The Load Resistor Ⅰ

Example 11.2 The Load Resistor Ⅱ

Load Power

The Source Resistor

Example 11.3 The Source Resistance Ⅰ

Example 11.4 The Source Resistance Ⅱ

The Complete System

Example 11.5 The Total System

11.3 THE COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER

No-Load Gain

Output Resistance

Input Resistance

General Derivation of Rbase

Formal Derivation of Rbase

Example 11.6 Box Model of the Common-Emitter Amplifier

Example 11.7 Box Model of the Bypassed Common-EmitterAmplifier

11.4 COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER WITH LOAD AND SOURCE RESISTORS

Load Resistor

Example 11.8 Load Resistor

Source Resistor

Example 11.9 Source Resistor

The Complete Common-Emitter Amplifier

Example 11.10 The Complete Amplifier

11.5 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER

Example 11.11 Two-Stage Amplifier

12 The Emitter Follower （TheCommon-CollectorAmplifier）

12.1 INTRODUCTION—THE BUFFER AMPLIFIER

Example 12.1 The Buffer

Example 12.2 Buffer Design

12.2 THE EMITTER FOLLOWER COMMON-COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER）

No-Load Gain

Example 12.3 Emitter-Follower Box Model Gain

Input Resistance

Example 12.4 Emitter Follower Input Resistance

Output Resistance

Example 12.5 Emitter-Follower Output Resistance

The Complete Box Model

Example 12.6 The Complete Emitter Follower

12.3 THE EMITTER FOLLOWER AS A CURRENT BUFFER

Example 12.7 The Current Buffer

12.4 ZENER VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE CURRENT BUFFER

Example 12.8 Zener Regulation

12.5 TROUBLESHOOTING

Shorted CL

Open CL

13 Improved BJT AC Models

13.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2 BJT TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

13.3 THE SIMPLE BJT MODEL

Example 13.1 The Simple BJT AC Model

13.4 THE HYBRID-PI BJT MODEL

The Hybrid-Pi Model

Example 13.2 The Early Voltage and ro

Example 13.3 The Hybrid-Pi Model

Example 13.4 The Hybrid-Pi Model with ro

Alternate Hybrid-Pi Model

13.5 THE H-PARAMETER BJT MODEL

Example 13.5 h-Parameter Model

Example 13.6 The BJT h-Parameter Model

13.6 MODEL COMPARISONS

Simple Model ＜—＞ Hybrid-Pi Model

Hybrid-Pi Model ＜—＞ h-Parameter Model

13.7 BJT DATA SHEETS

Interpreting Data Sheets

Determining the Early Voltage

14 The PNP Transistor

14.1 INTRODUCTION

14.2 VB CONTROL OF PNP TRANSISTORS

Example 14.1 VB Control Ⅰ

Example 14.2 VB Control Ⅱ

14.3 DOUBLE-SIDED SUPPLY BIASING

Example 14.3 Double-Sided Supply Voltages

14.4 THE PNP COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER

DC Bias Analysis

AC Analysis—The Box Model

Gain

Input Resistance

Output Resistance

System Gain

Example 14.4 The PNP Common-Emitter Amplifier

14.5 THE PNP EMITTER FOLLOWER COMMON-COLLECTOR）

DC Bias Analysis

AC Analysis—The Box Model

Gain

Input Resistance

Output Resistance

System Gain

Example 14.5 The PNP Emitter Follower

14.6 IB CONTROL

Example 14.6 Comparison of the NPN and PNP Inverters

14.7 COMBINED NPN-PNP CIRCUITS

VB Control

IB Control

Current Gain

14.8 TROUBLESHOOTING

Bad Connections

Transistor Open Failures

Transistor Short Failures

AC Signal Tracing

Example 14.7 Troubleshooting

15 The Common-Base Amplifier

15.1 INTRODUCTION

15.2 DC BIASING OF THE COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER

The NPN Common-Base Amplifier

The PNP Common-Base Amplifier

Example 15.1 DC Bias Levels in the Common-Base Amplifier

15.3 AC BEHAVIOR OF THE COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER—BOX MODEL

Gain

Output Resistance

Input Resistance

Example 15.2 Box Model of the Common-Base Amplifier

15.4 THE COMPLETE COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER

Example 15.3 Complete AC Analysis of the Common-Base Amplifier

15.5 AMPLIFIER COMPARISONS

15.6 TROUBLESHOOTING

Example 15.4 DC Troubleshooting the Common-Base

Example 15.5 AC Signal Tracing in the Common-Base Amplifier

16 Specialized Transistor Circuits

16.1 INTRODUCTION

16.2 THE DARLINGTON CONNECTION

Equivalent AC Emitter Resistance

16.3 DARLINGTON COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER

DC Bias Levels

AC Analysis—the Box Model

Example 16.1 The Darlington Common-Emitter Amplifier

16.4 THE CASCODE AMPLIFIER

DC Analysis

Example 16.2 DC Analysis of the Common-Base Amplifier

16.5 THE CASCODE AMPLIFIER—AC ANALYSIS

Example 16.3 Cascode Amplifier—AC Analysis

16.6 COLLECTOR-FEEDBACK BIASING

Example 16.4 Collector-Feedback Biasing

16.7 ANALYSIS OF COLLECTOR-FEEDBACK BIASING—THE MILLER EFFECT

Input Resistance—The Miller Effect

Example 16.5 Collector Feedback—AC Analysis

17 The Differential Amplifier

17.1 INTRODUCTION

17.2 BIASING THE DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Example 17.1 NPN Differential Amplifier Biasing

Example 17.2 Current Source Biasing

Example 17.3 PNP Differential Amplifier Biasing

17.3 THE DIFFERENTIAL MODE

Example 17.4 Differential-Mode Gain

The Differential-Mode Box Model

Limits on Input Voltage Difference

17.4 COMMON-MODE GAIN

Example 17.5 Common-Mode Gain

17.5 THE GENERAL DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Example 17.6 General Differential Amplifier Response

17.6 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

Example 17.7 Instrumentation Amplifiers

17.7 TROUBLESHOOTING

Open Failures

Short Failures

Example 17.8 Troubleshooting Differential Amplifier Circuits

Troubleshooting Integrated Circuit Amplifiers

18 Current Sources

18.1 INTRODUCTION

18.2 THE BASIC NPN TRANSISTOR CURRENT SOURCE

VB Control

Example 18.1 The NPN Current Source

Maximum Load Voltage and Resistance

Example 18.2 Maximum Load Voltage and Current

18.3 THE BASIC PNP TRANSISTOR CURRENT SOURCE

VB Control

Maximum Load Voltage and Resistance

Example 18.3 The PNP Current Source

18.4 NEGATIVE VOLTAGE SUPPLY CURRENT SOURCES

NPN

Example 18.4 Negative Voltage Supply NPN Current Source

PNP

Example 18.5 Negative Voltage Supply PNP Current Source

18.5 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

Example 18.6 Temperature Compensation

18.6 THE CURRENT MIRROR

Example 18.7 Negative Supply NPN Current Mirror

Example 18.8 PNP Current Mirror

18.7 CURRENT SOURCE BIASING OF DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

DC Bias

Box Model

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

Current Source Output Resistance

Example 18.9 Differential Amplifier

19 Power Amplifiers

19.1 INTRODUCTION

19.2 THE COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER—MAXIMUM VOLTAGE SWING

Symmetrical Swing

Example 19.1 Maximum Symmetrical Swing

Example 19.2 Maximum Swing—Common-Emitter Amplifier

Capacitor Coupling and the Bypass Capacitor

Example 19.3 Common Emitter with Capacitors Ⅰ

Example 19.4 Common Emitter with Capacitors Ⅱ

19.3 THE EMITTER FOLLOWER—MAXIMUM VOLTAGE SWING

Example 19.5 Emitter Follower—Maximum Swing

19.4 CLASS A POWER CONSIDERATIONS

Example 19.6 Power Calculations for the Class A Amplifier

19.5 TRANSFORMER COUPLING

Analysis of the Transformer-Coupled Amplifier

Power Calculations

Example 19.7 Transformer-Coupled Class A Amplifier

19.6 THE CLASS B AMPLIFIER

Operation

Power Considerations

Example 19.8 Class B Maximum Power Calculations

Example 19.9 Class B Power Calculations

Distortion in the Class B Amplifier

19.7 PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER BIASING

Example 19.10 Class B Biasing

Diode Biasing

Single-Supply Biasing

Example 19.11 Single-Supply Diode Biasing

The Bridge Amplifier and Phase Splitter

19.8 TROUBLESHOOTING

Short Circuit Failures

Example 19.12 Q2 Short Failures

Open Circuit Failures

PART 3 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS （FET）

20 The Field Effect Transistor

20.1 INTRODUCTION

20.2 THE JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR （JFET）

JFET Operating States

Example 20.1 Determining the Pinch-Off Voltage

BJT SATURATION Region—JFET OHMIC Region

Example 20.2 The OHMIC Region

20.3 ACTIVE REGION DRAIN CURRENT VS.GATE VOLTAGE （ID-VGS）

The ID-VGs Curve

Example 20.3 Constructing the ID-VGS Curve

The CUT-OFF, PINCH-OFF Confusion

20.4 BASIC N-CHANNEL JFET BIASING

Example 20.4 N-Channel JFET Biasing

Example 20.5 The OHMIC Region

20.5 SINGLE-SOURCE JFET BIASING （GRAPHICAL）

Determining the Q-Point

Example 20.6 Graphical Bias Calculations

But I Can’t Find the JFET Ⅰ-Ⅴ Curve!

Example 20.7 Constructing the JFET Ⅰ-V Curve

20.6 SINGLE-SOURCE JFET BIASING （ANALYTICAL）

Example 20.8 Analytical Bias Calculation

20.7 VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIASING

Example 20.9 Voltage Divider Biasing

Analytical Calculation of Bias Levels

Example 20.10 Voltage Divider Biasing—Analytical Calculation

The Universal JFET Ⅰ-V Curve

20.8 THE P-CHANNEL JFET

Finding Bias Values

Example 20.11 P-Channel Biasing （VG = OV）

Example 20.12 Voltage Divider P-Channel Biasing

Analytical Calculations

Example 20.13 Analytical Bias Calculation （VG = OV）

Example 20.14 Voltage Divider Biasing—Analytical

20.9 JFET DATA SHEETS AND COMPUTER MODELS

JFET Specifications

JFET Computer Model

Example 20.15 Data Sheet Parameters and Computer Model Parameters

20.10 TROUBLESHOOTING THE JFET

Out-of-Circuit Tests

DC Troubleshooting of JFET Circuits

Example 20.16 DC Troubleshooting

21 The MOSFET

21.1 INTRODUCTION

21.2 THE N-CHANNEL D-MOSFET

Structure and Function

Example 21.1 Biasing the D-MOSFET, Depletion Region

Example 21.2 Biasing the D-MOSFET, Enhancement Region

Example 21.3 D-MOSFET Biasing, Analytical Method

The Almost Universal N-Channel D-MOSFET Ⅰ-V Curve

21.3 THE P-CHANNEL D-MOSFET

Structure and Function

Example 21.4 Biasing the P-Channel D-MOSFET

Example 21.5 P-Channel D-MOSFET Biasing, AnalyticalMethod

The Almost Universal P-Channel D-MOSFET Ⅰ-V Curve

21.4 THE N-CHANNEL E-MOSFET

Structure and Function

Example 21.6 N-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing

Analytical N-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing

Example 21.7 N-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing, Analytical Method

The Almost-Universal N-Channel E-MOSFET Ⅰ-V Curve

21.5 THE P-CHANNEL E-MOSFET

Structure and Function

Example 21.8 P-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing

Analytical P-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing

Example 21.9 P-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing, Analytical Method

The Almost Universal P-Channel E-MOSFET Ⅰ-V Curve

21.6 MOSFET DATA SHEETS AND COMPUTER MODELS

Data Sheets

21.7 THE COMPLEMENTARY MOSFET （CMOS）—AN INVERTER

21.8 OTHER MOSFETs

Power FETs

Dual-Gate MOSFETs

The MESFET

21.9 DC TROUBLESHOOTING MOSFET CIRCUITS

DC Troubleshooting the D-MOSFET

Open Failures

Short Failures

DC Troubleshooting the E-MOSFET

22FET AC Behavior and Applications

22.1 INTRODUCTION

22.2 FET AC MODEL

Determining gm for the JFET and D-MOSFET

Example 22.1 Finding gm for the JFET

Determining gm for the E-MOSFET

Example 22.2 Finding gm for the E-MOSFET

FET Data Sheets and AC Parameters

FET OHMIC Region Resistance

22.3 THE COMMON-SOURCE FET AMPLIFIER

Common Source Box Model Parameters

Example 22.3 The Common-Source Amplifier

22.4 ADDITIONAL FET CIRCUITS

Example 22.4 The FET Follower

22.5 FET-BJT CIRCUITS

22.6 THE VOLTAGE VARIABLE RESISTOR

Resistance of FET

Example 22.5 The FET as a Voltage Variable Resistor

Automatic Gain Control （AGC）

22.7 CMOS LOGIC CIRCUITS

Inverter

NAND Gate

NOR Gate

Special Topic FET Modeling

BJT Models

FET Models

PART 4 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

23 The Operational Amplifier（OP-AMP）

23.1 INTRODUCTION

23.2 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER （OP-AMP）

23.3 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Talking Around the Loop

The General Negative Feedback Amplifier

Example 23.1 Closed-Loop Gain

High Forward Gain

23.4 THE NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER—TALKING AROUND THE LOOP

The Unity-Gain Amplifier （Buffer Amplifier）

Example 23.2 The Unity-Gain （Buffer） Amplifier

The Non-Inverting Amplifier

Example 23.3 The Non-Inverting Amplifier

Example 23.4 Non-Inverting Amplifier Design

23.5 THE INVERTING AMPLIFIER—TALKING AROUND THE LOOP

Example 23.5 The Inverting Amplifier

Example 23.6 The Inverting Amplifier, Design

23.6 THE IDEAL OP-AMP

Non-Inverting Amplifier

Example 23.7 The Non-Inverting Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier

Example 23.8 The Inverting Op-Amp Amplifier

23.7 THE REAL OP-AMP

Input Bias Current

Example 23.9 The Non-Inverting Amplifier

Input Offset Voltage

Bandwidth （Gain-Bandwidth Product）

Example 23.10 Bandwidth and Gain-Bandwidth Product

Rise Time and Slew Rate

Op-Amp Data Sheets

23.8 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS

23.9 TROUBLESHOOTING OP-AMP CIRCUITS

Example 23.11 Op-Amp Troubleshooting

24 Operational Amplifier Circuits

24.1 INTRODUCTION

Non-Inverting Amplifier

Unity-Gain Buffer Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier

Op-Amp Analysis Procedure

Troubleshooting

24.2 SUMMING AMPLIFIERS

Inverting Summer

Example 24.1 The Inverting Summer

Example 24.2 Digital-to-Analog Converter （DAC）

Inverting Amplifier with Buffers

Non-Inverting Summer

Example 24.3 Non-Inverting Amplifier

Example 24.4 Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier

Troubleshooting

24.3 DIFFERENCE （DIFFERENTIAL） AMPLIFIER

Differential Amplifier

The Bridge Amplifier

Example 24.5 Bridge Amplifier

Troubleshooting

24.4 DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION

Differentiation

A Note of Caution

Example 24.6 Differentiation

25 Non-Linear Operational Amplifier Circuits

Integration

Example 24.7 Op-Amp Integration

Troubleshooting

24.5 IMPROVED VOLTAGE REGULATION

Example 24.8 Buffered Zener with Voltage Divider

Troubleshooting

25.1 INTRODUCTION

25.2 RECTIFIERS

Simple Inverting Rectifier

Example 25.1 Simple Inverting Rectifier

Precision Rectifiers

Non-Inverting Precision Rectifier

Example 25.2 Non-Inverting Rectifier

Inverting Precision Rectifier

Example 25.3 Inverting Precision Rectifier

Troubleshooting

25.3 LIMITERS

Op-Amp Limiter Circuit

Example 25.4 Op-Amp Limiter

Troubleshooting

25.4 ZERO-CROSSING DETECTOR

Example 25.5 Zero-Crossing Detector

25.5 COMPARATORS LEVEL DETECTORS）

The Non-Inverting Comparator

Example 25.6 Non-Inverting Comparator

Voltage Divider Reference Voltage for Comparator

The Inverting Comparator

Example 25.7 Voltage Level Indicator

Troubleshooting

25.6 SCHMITT TRIGGER

Positive Feedback

Example 25.8 The Schmitt Trigger

Troubleshooting

PART 5 ADVANCED TOPICS RESPONSE AND FILTERS

26 Frequency Response

26.1 INTRODUCTION

26.2 THE GAIN RESPONSE

Amplifier Gain

Bandwidth

Example 26.1 Half-Power Frequencies—Band-Pass Response

Example 26.2 Half-Power Frequency—Low-Pass Response

Example 26.3 Half-Power Frequency—High-Pass Response

26.3 THE BODE GAIN PLOT

Example 26.4 Log f Scale—Decades

Example 26.5 Log f Scale—Octaves

Example 26.6 3-dB Frequencies—Band-Pass Response

Example 26.7 3-dB Frequency—Low-Pass Response

Example 26.8 3-dB Frequency—High-Pass Response

26.4 LOW-FREQUENCY RESPONSE—COUPLING CAPACITORS

Capacitor Reactance

The 3-dB Frequency

Example 26.9 Simple RC Circuit

Two-Resistor Circuit

Example 26.10 Two-Resistor, Single Capacitor Circuit

The Box Model

Example 26.11 Common-Emitter Amplifier

Example 26.12 Common-Source Amplifier

Op-Amp Amplifiers

Example 26.13 Inverting Op-Amp AC Amplifier

Example 26.14 Non-Inverting Op-Amp AC Amplifier

26.5 LOW-FREQUENCY RESPONSE—BYPASS CAPACITORS

Example 26.15 Source Bypass Capacitor

26.6 HIGH-FREQUENCY RESPONSE—THE MILLER EFFECT

Amplifiers with Bypass Capacitors

The Miller Capacitance

Example 26.16 Complete Common-Emitter Frequency Response

Example 26.17 Complete Common-Source Frequency Response

Amplifiers without Bypass Capacitors

26.7 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Common Emitter-to-Common Emitter （CE-CE）

Emitter Follower-to-Common Emitter （EF-CE）

Cascode Amplifier （Common Base-to-Common Emitter）

26.8 TRANSISTOR DATA SHEETS

BJT Data Sheet

Example 26.18 BJT High-Frequency Parameters

JFET Data Sheet

26.9 OP-AMP FREQUENCY RESPONSE

The Gain-Bandwidth Product

27 Active Filters

27.1 INTRODUCTION

27.2 Low-PASS FILTERS

The Ideal Low-Pass Filter

The Passive First-Order Low-Pass Filter

Example 27.1 First-Order Passive RC Filter

27.3 THE Low-PAss ACTIVE FILTER

First-Order Filters

Example 27.2 First-Order Low-Pass Active Filter

Second-Order Filters

Example 27.3 Sallen-Key Filter

27.4 THE HIGH-PASS ACTIVE FILTER

First-Order Filters

Example 27.4 First-Order High-Pass Active Filter

Second-Order Filters

Example 27.5 Sallen-Key High-Pass Filter

27.5 THE BAND-PASS ACTIVE FILTER

Relating fL and fH to BW and fo

High Pass-Low Pass Combination

Example 27.6 High Pass-Low Pass Combination

Sallen-Key Band-Pass Filter

Example 27.7 Sallen-Key Band-Pass Filter

27.6 HIGHER ORDER FILTERS

27.7 TROUBLESHOOTING ACTIVE FILTERS

Low-Pass Active Filter

High-Pass Active Filter

Band-Pass Active Filter

Example 27.8 Troubleshooting the Low-Pass Filter

28 Feedback Amplifiers

28.1 INTRODUCTION

28.2 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK BASICS

Terms and Formulas

Example 28.1 Closed-Loop Gain

Amplifier Parameter Variations and Non-Linearities

28.3 POSITIVE FEEDBACK BASICS

Stable Response

Sustained Pulse

Unstable Response

Example 28.2 Positive Feedback

28.4 STABILITY OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

Example 28.3 Phase Angle and Time Delay

28.5 VOLTAGE FEEDBACK

Four Feedback Possibilities

Example 28.4 Feedback Analysis of Non-Inverting Amplifier

BJT Feedback Analysis

Example 28.5 BJT Voltage Out-Voltage Feedback Amplifier

28.6 VOLTAGE OUT-CURRENT FEEDBACK

Example 28.6 Voltage Out-Current Feedback Amplifier

28.7 INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE—VOLTAGE FEEDBACK

System Gain

Input Resistance

Output Resistance

Example 28.7 Input and Output Resistance—Voltage Feedback

28.8 INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE—CURRENT FEEDBACK

System Gain

Input Resistance

Output Resistance

Example 28.8 Input and Output Resistance—Current Feedback

How Do I Know if a Transistor Amplifier Is Voltage or Current Feedback?

28.9 CURRENT-OUT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

Current Out-Current Feedback Amplifier

Current Out-Voltage Feedback Amplifier

28.10 TROUBLESHOOTING

Loosing the Feedback Loop （RF Fails Open）

Degradation in the Forward-Path Amplifier

A Note of Caution

29 Signal Generators

29.1 INTRODUCTION

29.2 THE CLASS C TUNED AMPLIFIER

Example 29.1 The LC Tuned Circuit

Example 29.2 Designing the LC Tuned Circuit

The Class C Tuned Amplifier

29.3 LC OSCILLATORS

The Colpitts Oscillator

Example 29.3 The Colpitts Oscillator

Example 29.4 Colpitts Design

The Hartley Oscillator

Example 29.5 The Hartley Oscillator

Example 29.6 Hartley Design

Crystal Oscillator

Variable Frequency Oscillators

29.4 RC OSCILLATORS

The RC Phase Shift Oscillator

Example 29.7 The RC Phase Shift Oscillator

The Wien Bridge Oscillator

Example 29.8 The Wien Bridge Oscillator

29.5 SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR

Example 29.9 Pulse Wave Parameters

Example 29.10 Square Wave Generator

Example 29.11 Designing a Square Wave Generator

29.6 TRIANGLE WAVE GENERATOR

Example 29.12 Ramp Generator

Example 29.13 Triangle Wave Generator

Triangle Wave Generator

The Sawtooth Generator

29.7 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT SIGNAL GENERATORS

The 555 Pulse Generator

Example 29.14 The 555 Astable Multivibrator

Function Generator Integrated Circuit

29.8 TROUBLESHOOTING OSCILLATORS

Example 29.15 Troubleshooting LC Oscillators

Example 29.16 Troubleshooting RC Phase Shift Oscillators

30 ElectronicSwitches（Thyristors）

30.1 INTRODUCTION

30.2 THE FOUR-LAYER DIODE AND THE DIAC

The Four-Layer Diode

Example 30.1 The Four-Layer Diode Relaxation Oscillator

The DIAC

30.3 THE SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER （SCR）

Turning the SCR OFF

Example 30.2 SCR Indicator Circuit

Example 30.3 SCR Relaxation Oscillator

False Triggering

Example 30.4 Four-Layer Diode Triggering of SCR

30.4 AC SCR APPLICATIONS

DC Motor Control

Example 30.5 Conduction Angle and DC Value

Example 30.6 SCR with Four-Layer Diode

RC Time-Delay Circuit

Example 30.7 RC Triggering Circuit

30.5 THE TRIAC

30.6 THE UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR （UJT）

UJT Basics

Example 30.8 UJT Vp Determination

Example 30.9 UJT Relaxation Oscillator

The Programmable Unijunction Transistor （PUT）

30.7 ADDITIONAL THYRISTORS

The Gate Turn-Off Switch （GTO）

The Silicon Bilateral Switch （SBS）

The Silicon-Controlled Switch （SCS）

Thyristor Optoisolators