PART ONE:Aframeworkforteachingandlearning

1 Learners and learning,classrooms and contexts

1.1 Introduction:issues for the language teacher

1.2 What do we know about how languages are learned?

1.2.1 The nature ofinput

1.2.2 The process ofintake

1.2.3 The role ofinteraction in the classroom

1.2.4 The role oferror

1.3 How do differences among learners affect learning processes and teaching procedures?

1.3.1 Aptitude

1.3.2 Learning style and learning strategies

1.3.3 Affective factors

1.3.4 Motivation for learning English

1.4 What factors of context should teachers take into account?

1.5 What roles can teachers and learners play in the learning process?

1.5.1 The teacher's roles and responsibilities

1.5.2 The Iearner's roles and responsibilities

1.6 What roles can learning materials play?

1.7 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

2 The communicative classroom

2.1 Introduction:the concept ofcommunicative language ability

2.2 What are the components ofcommunicative language ability?

2.2.1 Linguistic competence

2.2.2 Pragmatic competence

2.2.3 Discourse competence

2.2.4 Strategic competence

2.2.5 Fluency

2.3 What are the issues for the communicative curriculum?

2.4 What are the implications for the communicative classroom?

2.4.1 What are communicative tasks and what are their roles in teaching and learning?

2.4.2 How can we manage a communicative classroom?

2.4.3 What does communicative language teaching imply for authenticity in the classroom?

2.5 What are the issues in applying a communicative approach in context?

2.6 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

3 Learner autonomy and learner training

3.1 Introduction:the self-directed learner

3.2 What do we know about the strategies ofthe'good language learner'?

3.2.1 Types oflearner strategy

3.2.2 Research into learner strategies

3.3 What insights can we gain from educational thinking on autonomous learning?

3.4 What are the implications for learner training in the classroom?

3.4.1 Activities which help learners to reflect on learning

3.4.2 Activities which train strategies and equip learners to be active

3.4.3 Activities which encourage learners to monitor and check their own progress

3.5 What role can self-access facilities play in language learning?

3.6 Are learner autonomy and learner training universally appropriate concepts?

3.7 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

PART TWO:Teaching the language system

4 Vocabulary

4.1 Introduction:the task oflearning vocabulary

4.2 What do we know about the lexical system ofEnglish?

4.2.1 Denotative and connotative meaning

4.2.2 Meaning relations amongwords

4.3 How do second language learners acquire vocabulary?

4.3.1 Strategies for vocabulary learning

4.3.2 Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition

4.4 What are the implications for the teaching ofvocabulary?

4.4.2 Encouraging the development ofeffective strategies

4.4.1 Developing a variety oftechniques for the teaching ofmeaning

4.4.3 Exposing learners to vocabulary through reading and training lexical inferencing

4.4.4 Teaching the effective use ofdictionaries

4.4.5 Evaluating the vocabulary component of coursebooks

4.4.6 Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types

4.4.7 Developing resources for vocabulary teaching

4.5 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

5 Grammar

5.1 Introduction:the role ofgrammar in English language teaching

5.2.1 Noticing

5.2.2 Reasoning and hypothesizing

5.2 What do we know about the learning ofgrammar?

5.2.3 Structuring and restructuring

5.2.4 Automatizing

5.3 What information can help us in the selection and presentation ofgrammar?

5.3.1 Grammar as meaning

5.3.2 Grammar in discourse

5.3.3 Grammar and style

5.4 What principles can guide us in the teaching ofgrammar?

5.4.1 Presenting grammar

5.4.2 Practising grammar

5.4.3 How can we design the grammar component of a course?

5.4.4 How can we suit approach to learner needs?

Discussion topics and projects

5.5 Conclusion

Further reading

PART THREE:Developingthelanguage skills

6 Reading

6.1 Introduction:making sense ofa text

6.2 What do we know about the process ofsecond language reading?

6.2.1 In what ways is reading an interactive process?

6.2.2 In what ways is reading a purposeful process?

6.2.3 In what ways is reading a critical process?

6.2.4 What is the role ofextensive reading?

6.3 What are the implications for the teaching ofreading?

6.3.1 How do we establish goals for the reading classroom?

6.3.2 What criteria do we use to select reading texts?

6.3.3 What kinds oftasks help to develop reading ability?

6.3.4 Can we help students to read critically?

6.3.5 How can we encourage extensive reading?

6.4 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

7 Listening

7.1 Introduction:the role oflistening in the ELT curriculum

7.2 What do we know about the listening process?

7.2.1 Bottom-up processes in listening

7.2.2 Top-down processes in listening

7.2.3 Purposes for listening

7.3 What'uncertainties'exist for foreign language listeners?

7.3.1 Uncertainties ofconfidence

7.3.3 Uncertainties because ofgaps in the message

7.3.2 Uncertainties deriving from the presentation of speech

7.3.4 Uncertain strategies

7.3.5 Uncertainties oflanguage

7.3.6 Uncertainties ofcontent

7.3.7 Visual uncertainties

7.4 What are the implications for the English language classroom?

7.4.1 Creating reasons for listening

7.4.2 Selecting texts for listening

7.4.3 Designing listening activities for the classroom

7.4.4 Building confidence in listening to English

7.5 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

8 Speaking

8.1 Introduction:skills and strategies in speaking English

8.2 What is involved in speaking English competently?

8.2.1 Distinguishing types ofspeaking situation

8.2.2 Making oneselfunderstood

8.2.3 Managing interaction

8.3 What are the issues in teaching the phonological aspects of English?

8.3.1 Choosing a model for pronunciation teaching

8.3.2 Taking a holistic or atomistic approach

8.3.3 Selecting practice according to student need

8.4 What are the implications for classroom practice in the teaching of spoken English?

8.4.1 Talking with students about spoken English

8.4.2 Making accuracy-based practice meaningful

8.4.3 Designing and evaluating fluency-based activities

8.4.4 Providing a range and balance ofactivities in a course

8.4.5 Teaching the pronunciation component ofa course

8.4.6 Treating error in the classroom

8.4.7 Managing classroom interaction

8.5 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

9 Writing

9.1 Introduction:a contemporary writing classroom

9.2 What do we know about the process ofwriting?

9.2.1 What strategies do skilled writers use as they compose?

9.2.2 What activities characterize the writing process?

9.3 What are the implications ofa process approach?

9.3.1 Helping students to generate ideas

9.3.2 Providing practice in planning

9.3.3 Contextualizing tasks to develop a sense of audience

9.3.4 Encouraging students in revision strategies

9.3.5 Supporting students with technology

9.3.6 Issues in introducing a process approach

9.4 How can we analyse and describe the structure of written texts?

9.5 What are the implications ofa text-based approach to writing?

9.5.1 Helping studentstoidentifytheirwritingneeds

9.5.2 Building awareness ofdiscourse organization

9.5.4 Enabling students to appreciate the criteria for an effectivetext

9.5.3 Helping students to develop crafting skills

9.6 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

PART FOUR:Planning and assessing learning

10 Course design

10.1 Introduction:roles for the teacher in course design

10.2 What are the steps in course design?

10.2.1 Considering the students in their context of learning

10.2.2 Establishing goals and objectives

10.2.3 Planning the syllabus

10.2.4 Designing a course unit

10.2.5 What procedures can be helpful in evaluating courses?

10.3.1 Choosing a textbook

10.3 What choices do teachers need to make in course design?

10.3.2 Taking a process approach

10.3.3 Using projects in ELT

10.3.4 Negotiating with learners

10.4 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

11 Classroom assessment by Pauline Rea-Dickins

11.1 Introduction:assessment and testing

11.2 What is testing?

11.2.1 The structuralist influence

11.2.2 The communicative influence

11.3.1 What purposes should classroom assessment have?

11.3 What is the role of classroom assessment?

11.3.2 What kind of feedback is useful?

11.3.3 What assessment procedures are available?

11.4 What characterizes good assessment practice?

11.4.1 Are affective considerations relevant to assessment?

11.4.2 How can good assessment practice be framed?

11.5 Conclusion

Discussion topics and projects

Further reading

Appendix:Notes on Introductory tasks

Glossary

Bibliography

Index