PART 1 INTRODUCTION TO SPREAD-SPECTRUM COMMUNICATIONS

Chapter 1 A Spread-Spectrum Overview

1.1 A Basis for a Jamming Game

1.2 Energy Allocation Strategies

1.3 Spread-Spectrum System Configurations and Components

CONTENTS

Preface15　　

Preface to First Edition

1.4 Energy Gain Calculations for Typical Systems

1.5 The Advantages of Spectrum Spreading

1.5.1 Low Probability of Intercept (LPI)

1.5.2 Independent Interference Rejection and Multiple-Access Operation

1.5.3 High-Resolution Time-of-Arrival (TOA)Measurements

2.3.1 Characterization of the Transmitted Signal

1.6 Design Issues

1.7 References

1.7.1 Books on Communication Theory

1.7.4 Spread-Spectrum Tutorials and General Interest Papers

1.7.2 Books on Resolution and Ambiguity Functions

1.7.3 Recent Books and Proceedings on Spread-Spectrum Communications

Chapter 2 The Historical Origins of Spread-Spectrum Communications

2.1.1 Radar Innovations

2.1 Emerging Concepts

2.1.2 Developments in Communication Theory

2.1.3 Correlator Mechanization

2.1.4 Protected Communications

2.1.5 Remote Control and Missile Guidance

2.2 Early Spread-Spectrum Systems

2.2.1 WHYN

2.2.2 A Note on CYTAC

2.2.3 Hush-Up

2.2.4 BLADES

2.2.5 Noise Wheels

2.2.6 The Hartwell Connection

2.2.7 NOMAC

2.2.8 F9C-A/Rake

2.2.9 A Note on PPM

2.2.10 CODORAC

2.2.11 M-Sequence Genesis

2.2.12 AN/ARC-50 Development at Magnavox

2.3.1　Spread-Spectrum Radar

2.3 Branches on the SS Tree

2.3.2 Other Early Spread-Spectrum Communication Systems

2.3.3 Spread-Spectrum Developments Outside the United States

2.4 A Viewpoint

2.5 References

3.1 Design Approach for Anti-Jam Systems

Chapter 3 Basic Concepts and System Models

3.2 Models and Fundamental Parameters

3.3 Jammer Waveforms

3.3.1 Broadband and Partial-Band Noise Jammers

3.3.2 CW and Multitone Jammers

3.3.3 Pulse Jammer

3.3.4 Arbitrary Jammer Power Distributions

3.3.5 Repeat-Back Jammers

3.4 Uncoded Direct-Sequence Spread Binary Phase-Shift-Keying

3.4.1 Constant Power Broadband Noise Jammer

3.4.2 Pulse Jammer

3.5 Coded Direct-Sequence Spread Binary Phase-Shift-Keying

3.5.1 Interleaver and Deinterleaver

3.5.2 Unknown Channel State

3.5.2.1 Soft Decision Decoder

3.5.2.2 Hard Decision Decoder

3.5.3 Known Channel State

3.5.3.1 Soft Decision Decoder

3.5.3.2 Hard Decision Decoder

3.6 Uncoded Frequency-Hopped Binary Frequency-Shift-Keying

3.6.1 Constant Power Broadband Noise Jammer

3.6.2 Partial-Band Noise Jammer

3.6.3 Multitone Jammer

3.7 Coded Frequency-Hopped Binary Frequency-Shift-Keying

3.8 Interleaver/Hop Rate Tradeoff

3.9 Receiver Noise Floor

3.10 Discussion

3.11 References

Appendix 3A: Interleaving and Deinterleaving

Chapter 4 General Analysis of Anti-Jam Communication Systems

4.1 System Model

4.2 Coded Bit Error Rate Bound

4.3 Cutoff Rates

4.4 Conventional Coherent BPSK

4.5 DS/BPSK and Pulse Jamming

4.6 Translation of Coded Error Bounds

4.7 Conventional Non-Coherent MFSK

4.7.1 Uncoded

4.7.2 Coded

4.8 FH/MFSK and Partial-Band Jamming

4.9 Diversity for FH/MFSK

4.10.1 Binary Super Channel

4.10 Concatenation of Codes

4.10.3 Reed-Solomon Outer Codes

4.10.2 M-ary Super Channel

4.11 Summary of Bit Error Bounds

4.11.1 DS/BPSK with Pulse Jamming

4.11.2 FH/MFSK with Partial-Band Noise Jamming

4.11.3 Coding Functions

4.12 References

Appendix 4A: Chernoff Bound

Appendix 4B: Factor of One-Half in Error Bounds

Appendix 4C: Reed-Solomon Code Performance

Chapter 5 Pseudonoise Generators

5.1 The Storage/Generation Problem

5.2 Linear Recursions

5.2.1 Fibonacci Generators

5.2.2 Formal Power Series and Characteristic Polynomials

5.2.3 Galois Generators

5.2.4 State Space Viewpoint

5.2.5 Determination of Linear Recursions from Sequence Segments

5.3.1 Partial Fraction Decompositions

5.3 Memory-Efficient Linear Generators

5.3.2 Maximization of Period for a Fixed Memory Size

5.3.3 Repeated Factors in the Characteristic Polynomial

5.3.4 M-Sequences

5.4 Statistical Properties of M-Sequences

5.4.1 Event Counts

5.4.2 The Shift-and-Add Property

5.4.3 Hamming Distance Properties of Derived Real-Integer Sequences

5.4.4 Correlation Properties of Derived Complex Roots-of-Unity Sequences

5.5 Galois Field Connections

5.5.1 Extension Field Construction

5.5.2 The LFSR as a Galois Field Multiplier

5.5.3 Determining the Period of Memory Cell Outputs

5.5.4 The Trace Representation of M-Sequences

5.5.5 A Correlation Computation

5.5.6 Decimations of Sequences

5.6 Non-Linear Feed-Forward Logic

5.6.1 A Powers-of-α Representation Theorem

5.6.2 Key's Bound on Linear Span

5.6.3 Difference Set Designs

5.6.4 GMW Sequences

5.7 Direct-Sequence Multiple-Access Designs

5.7.1 A Design Criterion

5.7.2 Welch's Inner Product Bound

5.7.3 Cross-correlation of Binary M-Sequences

5.7.4 Linear Designs

5.7.5 A Transform-Domain Design Philosophy

5.7.6 Bent Sequences

5.8.1 Design Criteria

5.8 Frequency-Hopping Multiple-Access Designs

5.8.2 A Bound on Hamming Distance

5.8.3 An FHMA Design Employing an M-Sequence Generator

5.8.4 Reed-Solomon Sequences

5.9 A Look at the Literature

5.10 References

Appendix 5A: Finite Field Arithmetic

Appendix 5B: Factorizations of 2n—1 and Selected Primitive Polynomials

PART 2 CLASSICAL SPREAD-SPECTRUM COMMUNICATIONS

Chapter 1 Coherent Direct Sequence Systems

1.1 Direct-Sequence Spread Coherent Binary Phase-Shift Keying

1.2 Uncoded Bit Error Probability for Arbitrary Jammer Wave forms

1.2.1 Chernoff Bound

1.2.2 Gaussian Assumptions

1.3 Uncoded Bit Error Probability for Specific Jammer Waveforms

1.3.1 CW Jammer

1.3.2 Random Jammer

1.4.1 Arbitrary Time Distribution

1.4 Pulse Jamming

1.4.2 Worst Case Jammer

1.5 Standard Codes and Cutoff Rates

1.5.1 The Additive White Gaussian Noise Channel

1.5.2 Jamming Channels

1.6.1 Continuous Jammer with No Coding

1.6 Slow Frequency Non-Selective Fading Channels

1.6.2 Continuous Jammer with Coding—No Fading Estimate

1.6.3 Continuous Jammer with Coding—Fading Estimate

1.6.4 Pulse Jammer withNo Coding

1.7 Slow Fading Multipath Channels

1.8 Other Coding Metrics for Pulse Jamming

1.9 Discussion

1.10 References

Chapter 2 Non-Coherent Frequency-Hopped Systems

2.1 Broadband Noise Jamming

2.2.1 Partial-Band Noise Jamming

2.2 Worst Case Jamming

2.2.2 Multitone Jamming

2.2.2.1 Random JammingTone Phase

2.2.2.2 Band Multitone Jamming

2.2.2.3 Independent Multitone Jamming

2.3 Coding Countermeasures

2.3.1 Time Diversity

2.3.1.1 Partial-Band Noise Jamming

2.3.1.2 Band Multitone Jamming

2.3.1.3 Independent Multitone Jamming

2.3.1.4 Time Diversity Overview

2.3.2 Coding Without Diversity

2.3.2.1 Convolutional Codes

2.3.2.2 Reed-Solomon Codes

2.3.2.3 Concatenated Codes

2.3.3 Coding With Diversity

2.3.3.1 Optimum Code Rates

2.4 Slow Fading Uniform Channels

2.4.1 Broadband Jamming—No Diversity

2.4.2 Broadband Jamming—Diversity and Coding

2.4.3 Partial-Band Jamming

2.5 Worst Noise Jammer Distribution—Slow Fading Uniform Channel

2.5.1 Uncoded

2.5.2 Diversity and Coding

2.6 Worst Noise Jammer Distribution—Slow Fading Nonuniform Channel

2.6.1 Uncoded

2.6.2 Diversity and Coding

2.7 Other Coding Metrics

2.7.1 Energy Quantizer

2.7.2 Hard Decision with One Bit Quality Measure

2.7.3 List Metric

2.7.4 Metrics for Binary Codes

2.8 References

Appendix 2A: Justification of Factor of 1/2 for FH/MFSK Signals with Diversity in Partial-Band Noise

Appendix 2B: Combinatorial Computation for n = 1 Band Multitone Jamming

PART 3 OTHER FREQUENCY-HOPPED SYSTEMS

Chapter 1 Coherent Modulation Techniques

1.1 Performance of FH/QPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming

1.2 Performance of FH/QASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming

1.3 Performance of FH/QPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Noise Jamming

1.4 Performance of FH/QASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Noise Jamming

1.5 Performance of FH/PN/QPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming

1.6 Performance of FH/PN/QASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming

1.7 Performance of FH/QPR in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming

1.8 Performance of FH/QPR in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming

1.9 Summary and Conclusions

1.10 References

Chapter 2 Differentially Coherent Modulation Techniqnes

2.1 Performance of FH/MDPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming

2.1.1 Evaluation of Q2πn/m

2.2 Performance of FH/MDPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Noise Jamming

2.3 Performance of DQASK in the Presence of Additive White Gaussian Noise

2.3.2 Receiver Characterization and Performance

2.4 Performance of FH/DQASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming

2.5 Performance of FH/DQASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Noise Jamming

2.6 References

PART 4 SYNCHRONIZATION OF SPREAD-SPECTRUM SYSTEMS

Chapter 1 Pseudonoise Acquisition in Direct Sequence Receivers

1.1 Historical Survey

1.2 The Single Dwell Serial PN Acquisition System

1.2.1 Markov Chain Acquisition Model

1.2.2 Single Dwell Acquisition Time Performance in the Absence of Code Doppler

1.2.3 Single Dwell Acquisition Time Performance in the Presence of Code Doppler and Doppler Rate

1.2.4 Evaluation of Detection Probability PD and False Alarm Probability PFA in Terms of PN Acquisition System Parameters

1.2.5 Effective Probability of Detection and Timing Misalignment

1.2.6 Modulation Distortion Effects

1.2.7 Reduction in Noise Spectral Density Caused by PN Despreading

1.2.8 Code Doppler and Its Derivative

1.2.9 Probability of Acquisition for the Single Dwell System

1.3 The Multiple Dwell Serial PN Acquisition System

1.3.1 Markov Chain Acquisition Model

1.3.2 Multiple Dwell Acquisition Time Performance

1.4.1 The Flow Graph Technique

1.4 A Unified Approach to Serial Search Acquisition with Fixed Dwell Times

1.5 Rapid Acquisition Using Matched Filter Techniques

1.5.1 Markov Chain Acquisition Model and Acquisition Time Performance

1.5.2 Evaluation of Detection and False Alarm Probabilities for Correlation and Coincidence Detectors

1.5.2.1 Exact Results

1.5.2.2 Approximate Results

1.5.2.3 Acquisition Time Performance

1.6 PN Sync Search Procedures and Sweep Strategies for a Non-Uniformly Distributed Signal Location

1.6.1 An Example—Single Dwell Serial Acquisition with an Optimized Expanding Window Search

1.6.2 Application of the Circular State Diagram Approach

1.7 PN Synchronization Using Sequential Detection

1.7.1 A Brief Review of Sequential Hypothesis Testing as Applied to the Non-Coherent Detection of a Sine Wave in Gaussian Noise

1.7.2 The Biased Square-Law Sequential Detector

1.7.3 Probability of False Alarm and Average Test Duration in the Absence of Signal

1.7.4 Simulation Results

1.8 Search/Lock Strategies

1.8.1 Mean and Variance of the Acquisition Time

1.8.1.1 Evaluation of Probability Lock

1.8.1.2 Evaluation of Mean Dwell Time

1.8.2 Another Search/Lock Strategy

1.9 Further Discussion

1.10 References

Chapter 2 Pseudonoise Tracking in Direct Sequence Receivers

2.1.1 Mathematical Loop Model and Equation of Operation

2.1 The Delay-Locked Loop

2.1.2 Statistical Characterization of the Equivalent Additive Noise

2.1.3 Linear Analysis of DLL Tracking Performance

2.2 The Tau-Dither Loop

2.2.1 Mathematical Loop Model and equation of Operation

2.2.2 Statistical Characterization of the Equivalent Additive Noise

2.2.3 Linear Analysis of TDL Tracking Performance

2.3 Acquisition (Transient) Behavior of the DLL and TDL

2.4 Mean Time to Loss-of-Lock for the DLL and TDL

2.5 The Double Dither Loop

2.6 The Product of Sum and Difference DLL

2.7 The Modified Code Tracking Loop

2.8 The Complex Sums Loop (A Phase-Sensing DLL)

2.9 Quadriphase PN Tracking

2.10 Further Discussio

2.11 References

Chapter 3 Time and Frequency Synchronization of Frequency-Hopped Receivers

3.1 FH Acquisition Techniques

3.1.1 Serial Search Techniques with Active Correlation

3.1.2 Serial Search Techniques with Passive Correlation

3.1.3 Other FH Acquisition Techniques

3.2 Time Synchronization of Non-Coherent FH/MFSK Systems

3.2.1 The Case of Full-Band Noise jamming

3.2.1.1 Signal Model and Spectral Computations

3.2.1.2 Results of Large Nh

3.2.2 The Case of Partial-Band Noise Jamming

3.2.2.1 Results of Large pNh

3.2.3 The Effects of Time Synchronization Error on FH/MFSK Error Probability Performance

3.2.3.1 Conditional Error Probability Performance—No Diversity

3.2.3.2 Conditional ErrorProbability Performance—m-Diversity with Non-Coherent Combining

3.2.3.3 Average Error Probability Performance in the Presence of Time Synchronization Error Estimation

3.3 Frequency Synchronization of Non-Coherent FH/MFSK Systems

3.3.1 The Case of Full-Band Noise Jamming

3.3.1.1 Signal Model and Spectral Computations

3.3.2 The Case of Partial-Band Noise Jamming

3.3.3 The Effects of Frequency Synchronization Error on FH/MFSK Error Probability Performance

3.3.3.1 Average Error Probability Performance in the Presence of Frequency Synchronization Error Estimation

3.4 References Appendix 3A: To Prove That a Frequency Estimator Based upon Adjacent Spectral Estimates Taken at Integer Multiples of 1/T Cannot be Unbiased

PART 5 SPECIAL TOPICS

Chapter 1 Low Probability of Intercept Communications

1.1 Signal Modulation Forms

1.2 Interception Detectors

1.2.1 ldeal and Realizable Detectors

1.2.1.1 Detectability Criteria

1.2.1.2 Maximum or Bounding Performance of Fundamental Detector Types

(1) Wideband Energy Detector(Radiometer)

(2) Optimum Multichannel FH Pulse-Matched Energy Detector

(3) Filter Bank Combiner (FBC) Detector

(4) Partial-band Filter Bank Combiner(PB-FBC)

1.2.1.3 Signal Structures and Modulation Considerations

1.2.2 Non-idealistic Detector Performance

1.2.2.1 The Problem of Time Synchronization

(1) Wideband Detector with Overlapping I Ds Each of Duration Equal to That of the Message

(2) Wideband Detector with Single(Non-overlapping) I D of Duration Equal to Half of the Message Duration

(3) Wideband Detector with a Continuous Integration Post-Detection RC Filter

(4) Filter Bank Combiner with Overlapping I Ds Each of Hop Interval Duration

1.2.2.2 The Problem of Frequency Synchronization

(1) Doppler Effects

(2) Performance of the FBC with Frequency Error

(1) Wideband Single-Channel Detectors

1.2.3.1 Basic Configurations

1.2.3 Detector Implementation

(2) Channelized Detectors

1.2.3.2 Other Possible Feature Detector Configurations

1.3 Performance and Strategies Assessment

1.3.1 Communicator Modulation and Intercept Detectors

1.3.2 Anti-Jam Measures

1.3.3 Optimum LPI Modulation/Coding Conditions

1.4 Further Discussion

1.5 References

Appendix 1A: Conditions for Viable Multichannel Detector Performance

Chapter 2 Multiple Access

2.1.1 Decentralized (Point-to-Point) Networks

2.1 Networks

2.1.2 Centralized (Multipoint-to-Point) Networks

2.2 Summary of Multiple Access Tec hniques

2.3 Spread-Spectrum Multiple Access with DS/BPSK Waveforms

2.3.1 Point-to-Point

2.3.2 Conventional Multipoint-to-Point

2.3.3 Optimum Multipoint-to-Point

2.4 Spread-Spectrum Multiple Access with FH/MFSK Wave forms

2.4.1 Point-to-Point

2.4.2 Conventional Multipoint-to-Point

2.4.3 Optimum Multipoint-to-Point

2.6 References

2.5 Discussion

Chapter 3 Commercial Applications

3.1 Key Events in the Commercial Market

3.2 The United States FCC Part 15 Rules

3.2.1 Indoor Applications

3.2.2 Outdoor Applications

3.2.3 Direct Sequence Versus Frequency Hopping

3.2.3.1 Conversion of Narrowband Radios

3.2.3.2 Cost of Development and Products

3.2.3.3 Performance

3.2.4 Multipath and Diversity

3.2.5 Results of The Part 15 Rule

3.3 The Digital Cellular CDMA Standard

3.3.1 Overview of the CDMA DigitalCellular System (IS-95)

3.3.2 Comparison of IS-95, IS-54, and GSM

3.4 A New Paradigm for Designing Radio Networks

3.5 The Potential Capacity of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum CDMA in High-Density Networks

3.5.1 Data Versus Voice Applications

3.5.2 Power Control

3.5.3 Time Synchronization and Orthogonal Codes

3.5.4 The Outbound Channel

3.5.5 Frequency Reuse and Antenna Scctorization

3.5.6 Narrowbcam and Delay-line Antennas

3.6 Spread Spectrum CDMA for PCS/PCN

3.6.2 S-CDMA Equivalent to Bit-Level TDMA

3.6.1 Binary Orthogonal Codes

3.6.3 A High-Density Voice PCS System

3.6.3.1 Bit-Error Probabilities

3.6.3.2 Computer Simulations

3.6.3.3 Other System Issues

3.6.3.4 Comparison with DECT

3.7 Higher Capacity Optional Receivers

3.8 Summary

3.9 References

Appendix 3A: Multipath and Diversity

Appendix 3B: Error Bounds for Interference-Limited Channels

Index