CHAPTER 1 The Crystal Structure of Solids

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1.1 Semiconductor Materials

1.2 Types of Solids

1.3 Space Lattices

1.3.1 Primitive and Unit Cell

1.3.2 Basic Crystal Structures

1 3.3 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices

1.3.4 The Diamond Structure

1.4 Atomic Bonding

1.5 Imperfections and Impurities in Solids

1.5.1 Imperfections in Solids

1.5.2 Impurities in Solids

1.6 Growth of Semiconductor Materials

1.6.1 Growth from a Melt

1.6.2 Epitaxial Growth

1.7 Device Fabrication Techniques:Oxidation

1.8 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 2 Theory of Solids

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2.1 Principles of Quantum Mechanics

2.1.1Energy Quanta

2.1.2 Wave-Particle Duality Principle

2.2 Energy Quantization and Probability Concepts

2.2.1 Physical Meaning of the Wave Function

2.2.2 The One-Electron Atom

2.2.3 Periodic Table

2.3 Energy-Band Theory

2.3.1 Formation of Energy Bands

2.3.2 The Energy Band and the Bond Model

2.3.3 Charge Carriers—Electrons and Holes

2.3.4 Effective Mass

2.3.5 Metals,Insulators,and Semiconductors

2.3.6The k-Space Diagram

2.4 Density of States Function

2.5 Statistical Mechanics

2.5.1 Statistical Laws

2.5.2 The Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function and the Fermi Energy

2.5.3 Maxwell-Boltzmann Approximation

2.6 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 3 The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

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3.1 Charge Carriers in Semiconductors

3.1.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes

3.1.2 The no and po Equations

3.1 3 The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

3.1.4 The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position

3.2 Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels

3.2.1 Qualitative Description

3.2.2 Ionization Energy

3.2.3 Group Ⅲ-Ⅴ Semiconductors

3.3 Carrier Distributions in the Extrinsic Semiconductor

3.3.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes

3.3.2 The no po Product

3.3.3The Fermi-Dirac Integral

3.3.4 Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors

3.4 Statistics of Donors and Acceptors

3.4.1 Probability Function

3.4.2 Complete Ionization and Freeze-Out

3.5 Carrier Concentrations—Effects of Doping

3.5.1 Compensated Semiconductors

3.5.2 Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentrations

3.6 Position of Fermi Energy Level—Effects of Doping and Temperature

3.6.1 Mathematical Derivation

3.6.2 Variation of EF with Doping Concentratiion and Temperature

3.6.3 Relevance of the Fermi Energy

3.7 Device Fabrication Technology:Diffusion and Ion Implantation

3.7.1 Impurity Atom Diffusion

3.7.2 Impurity Atom Ion Implantation

3.8 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 4 Carrier Transport and Excess Carrier Phenomena

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4.1 Carrier Drift

4.1.1 Drift Current Density

4.1.2 Mobility Effects

4.1.3 Semiconductor Conductivity and Resistivity

4.1.4 Velocity Saturation

4.2 Carrier Diffusion

4.2.1 Diffusion Current Density

4.2.2 Total Current Density

4.3 Graded Impurity Distribution

4.3.1 Induced Electric Field

4 3.2 The Einstein Relation

4.4 Carrier Generation and Recombination

4.4.1The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

4.4.2 Excess Carrier Generation and Recombination

4.4.3 Generation-Recombination Processes

4.5 The Hall Effect

4.6 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 5 The pn Junction and Metal-Semiconductor Contact

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5.1 Basic Structure of the pn Junction

5.2 The pn Junction—Zero Applied Bias

5.2.1 Built-In Potential Barrier

5.2.2 Electric Field

5.2.3 Space Charge Width

5.3 The pn Junction—Reverse Applied Bias

5.3.1 Space Charge Width and Electric Field

5.3.2 Junction Capacitance

5.3.3 One-Sided Junctions

5.4 Metal—Semiconductor Contact—Rectifying Junction

5.4.1The Schottky Barrier

5.4.2 The Schottky Junction—Reverse Bias

5.5 Forward Applied Bias—An Introduction

5.5.1 Thepn Junction

5.5.2 The Schottky Barrier Junction

5.5.3 Comparison of the Schottky Diode and the pn Junction Diode

5.6 Metal-Semiconductor Ohmic Contacts

5.7 Nonuniformly Doped pn Junctions

5.7.1 Linearly Graded Junctions

5.7.2 Hyperabrupt Junctions

5.8 Device Fabrication Techniques:Photolithography,Etching,and Bonding

5.8.1 Photomasks and Photolithography

5.8.2 Etching

5.8.3 Impurity Diffusion or Ion Implantation

5.8.4 Metallization,Bonding,and Packaging

5.9 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 6 Fundamentals of the Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor

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6.1 The MOS Field-Effect Transistor Action

6.1.1 Basic Principle of Operation

6.1.2 Modes of Operation

6.1.3 Amplification with MOSFETs

6.2 The Two-Terminal MOS Capacitor

6.2.1 Energy-Band Diagrams and Charge Distributions

6.2.2 Depletion Layer Thickness

6.3 Potential Differences in the MOS Capacitor

6.3.1 Work Function Differences

6.3.2 Oxide Charges

6.3.3 Flat-Band Voltage

6.3.4 Threshold Voltage

6.3.5 Electric Field Profile

6.4 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics

6.4.1 Ideal C-V Characteristics

6.4.2 Frequency Effects

6.4.3 Fixed Oxide and Interface Charge Effects

6.5 The Basic MOSFET Operation

6.5.1 MOSFET Structures

6.5.2 Current-Voltage Relationship—Basic Concepts

6.5.3 Current-Voltage Relationship—Mathematical Derivation

6.5.4 Substrate Bias Effects

6.6 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit and Frequency Limitation Factors

6.6.1Transconductance

6.6.2 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit

6.6.3 Frequency Limitation Factors and Cutoff Frequency

6.7 Device Fabrication Techniques

6.7.1 Fabrication of an NMOS Transistor

6.7.2 The CMOS Technology

6.8 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 7 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor:Additional Concepts

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7.1 MOSFET Scaling

7.1.1 Constant-Field Scaling

7.1.2 Threshold Voltage—First Approximation

7.1.3 Generalized Scaling

7.2 Nonideal Effects

7.2.1 Subthreshold Conduction

7.2.2 Channel Length Modulation

7.2.3 Mobility Variation

7.2.4 Velocity Saturation

7.3 Threshold Voltage Modifications

7.3.1 Short-Channel Effects

7.3.2 Narrow-Channel Effects

7.3.3 Substrate Bias Effects

7.4 Additional Electrical Characteristics

7.4.1 Oxide Breakdown

7.4.2 Near Punch-Through or Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering

7.4.3 Hot Electron Effects

7.4.4 Threshold Adjustment by Ion Implantation

7.5 Device Fabrication Techniques:Specialized Devices

7.5.1 Lightly Doped Drain Transistor

7.5.2 The MOSFET on Insulator

7.5.3 The Power MOSFET

7.5.4 MOS Memory Device

7.6 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 8 Nonequilibrium Excess Carriers in Semiconductors

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8.1 Carrier Generation and Recombination

8.2 Analysis of Excess Carriers

8.2.1 Continuity Equations

8.2.2 Time-Dependent Diffusion Equations

8.3 Ambipolar Transport

8.3.1 Derivation of the Ambipolar Transport Equation

8.3.2 Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low Injection

8.3.3 Applications of the Ambipolar Transport Equation

8.3.4 Dielectric Relaxation Time Constant

8.3.5 Haynes-Shockley Experiment

8.4 Quasi-Fermi Energy Levels

8.5 Excess Carrier Lifetime

8.5.1 Shockley-Read-Hall Theory of Recombination

8.5.2 Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low Injection

8.6 Surface Effects

8.6.1 Surface States

8.6.2 Surface Recombination Velocity

8.7 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 9 The pn Junction and Schottky Diodes

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9.1 The pn and Schottky Barrier Junctions Revisited

9.1.1 Thepn Junction

9.1.2 The Schottky Barrier Junction

9.2 The pn Junction—Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship

9.2.1 Boundary Conditions

9.2.2 Minority-Carrier Distribution

9.2.3 Ideal pn Junction Current

9.2.4 Summary of Physics

9.2.5 Temperature Effects

9.2.6 The"Short"Diode

9.2.7 Summary of Results

9.3 The Schottky Barrier Junction—Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship

9.3.1 The Schottky Diode

9.3.2 Comparison of the Schottky Diode and the pn Junction Diode

9.4 Small-Signal Model of the pn Junction

9.4.1 Diffusion Resistance

9.4.2 Small-Signal Admittance

9.4.3 Equivalent Circuit

9.5 Generation-Recombination Currents

9.5.1Reverse-Bias Generation Current

9.5.2 Forward-Bias Recombination Current

9.5.3 Total Forward-Bias Current

9.6 Junction Breakdown

9.7 Charge Storage and Diode Transients

9.7.1 The Turn-Off Transient

9.7.2The Turn-On Transient

9.8 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 10 The Bipolar Transistor

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10.1 The Bipolar Transistor Action

10.1.1 The Basic Principle of Operation

10.1.2 Simplified Transistor Current Relations

10.1.3 The Modes of Operation

10.1.4 Amplification with Bipolar Transistors

10.2 Minority-Carrier Distribution

10.2.1 Forward-Active Mode

10.2.2 Other Modes of Operation

10.3 Low-frequency Common-Base Current Gain

10.3.1 Contributing Factors

10.3.2 Mathematical Derivation of Current Gain Factors

10.3.3 Summary and Review

10.3.4 Example Calculations of the Gain Factors

10.4 Nonideal Effects

10.4.1 Base Width Modulation

10.4.2 High Injection

10.4.3 Emitter Bandgap Narrowing

10.4.4 Current Crowding

10.4.5 Nonuniform Base Doping

10.4.6 Breakdown Voltage

10.5 Hybrid-Pi Equivalent Circuit Model

10.6 Frequency Limitations

10.6.1 Time-Delay Factors

10.6.2 Transistor Cutoff Frequency

10.7 Large-Signal Switching

10.8 Device Fabrication Techniques

10.8.1 Polysilicon Emitter BJT

10.8.2 Fabrication of Double-Polysilicon npn Transistor

10.8.3 Silicon-Germanium Base Transistor

10.8.4 The Power BJT

10.9 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 11 Additional Semiconductor Devices and Device Concepts

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11.1 The Junction Field-Effect Transistor

11.1.1 The pn JFET

11.1.2 The MESFET

11.1.3 Electrical Characteristics

11.2 Heterojunctions

11.2.1 The Heterojunction

11.2.2 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors

11.2.3 High-Electron Mobility Transistor

11.3 The Thyristor

11.3.1 The Basic Characteristics

11.3.2 Triggering the SCR

11.3.3 Device Structures

11.4 Additional MOSFET Concepts

11.4.1 Latch-Up

11.4.2 Breakdown

11.5 Microelectromechanical Systems（MEMS）

11.5.1 Accelerometers

11.5.2 Inkjet Printing

11.5.3 Biomedical Sensors

11.6 Summary

Problems

CHAPTER 12 Optical Devices

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12.1 Optical Absorption

12.1.1 Photon Absorption Coefficient

12.1.2 Electron-Hole Pair Generation Rate

12.2 Solar Cells

12.2.1 The pn Junction Solar Cell

12.2.2 Conversion Efficiency and Solar Concentration

12.2.3 The Heterojunction Solar Cell

12.2.4 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells

12.3 Photodetectors

12.3.1 Photoconductor

12.3.2 Photodiode

12.3.3 PIN Photodiode

12.3.4 Avalanche Photodiode

12.3.5 Phototransistor

12.4 Light-Emitting Diodes

12.4.1 Generation of Light

12.4.2 Internal Quantum Efficiency

12.4.3 External Quantum Efficiency

12.4.4 LED Devices

12.5 Laser Diodes

12.5.1 Stimulated Emission and Population Inversion

12.5.2 Optical Cavity

12.5.3 Threshold Current

12.5.4 Device Structures and Characteristics

12.6 Summary

Problems

APPENDIX A Selected List of Symbols

APPENDIX B System of Units,Conversion Factors,and General Constants

APPENDIX C Unit of Energy—The Electron-Volt

APPENDIx D "Derivation"and Applications of Schr？dinger's Wave Equation

Index