1 Introduction

1．1 Definitions and scope of typology

1．2 Cross-linguistic comparison

Preface by Halliday

王宗炎序

1．3 The problem of cross-linguistic comparability

导读

1．4 Non-typological factors and the sampling problem

1．5 Data sources

Preface and Acknowledgments

2 Typological classification

2．1 Introduction

2．2 The concept of a linguistic type（strategy）

Abbreviations

2．3 Morphological typology

3 Implicational universals

3．1 Restrictions on possible language types

3．2 Unrestricted and implicational universals

3．3 Deeper explanations for word-order universals

4 Markedness in typology

4．1 Introduction

4．2 Markedness and implicational universals

4．3 Criteria for markedness

4．3．1 Structure

4．3．2 Behavior

4．3．2．1 Inflectional behavior

4．3．2．2 Distributional behavior

4．3．3 Frequency

4．3．4 Neutral value

4．4 Conclusion

5 Grammatical hierarchies

5．1 Introduction

5．2 Hierarchies，implicational universals and markedness

5．3．1 Number

5．3 The principalgrammatical luerarchies

5．3．2 The grammatical relations hierarchy and NP accessibility

5．3．3 Animacy，definiteness and hierarchy of features

5．3．4 Bondedness（the modifier hierarchy）

5．4 Phonological hierurchies

5．5 Conclusion

6 Prototypes and the interaction of typological patterns

6．1 Introduction

6．2 Clusters and typological evidence for prototypes

6．2．1 Animacy and definiteness

6．2．2 Transitivity

6．3．1 Some phonological examples

6．3 Markedness reversals and complementary prototypes

6．3．2 Case．animacy and verb type

6．3．3 Nouns．verbs and adjectives

6．3．4 Other markedness reversals

6．4 More complex interactions

6．4．1 Place of articulation

6．4．2 Person

6．5 Typology and syntactic analysis

7 External motivation and the typology of form-function relations

7．1 Introduction

7．2．1 Frequency

7．2 Markedness and economic motivation

7．2．2 Other external explanations for markedness patterns

7．3 Iconicity

7．3．1 “Isomorphism”and polysemy

7．3．2 Iconic motivation

7．3．2．1 Conceptual distance and constituent structure

7．3．2．2 Syntactic categories．objects and events

7．3．2．3 Other universals of linguistic structure

7．4 Competing motivations

7．5 Typological conspiracies and communicative motivation

7．6 Conclusion

8．2 The dynamicization of synchronic typology

8．1 Introduction

8 Diachronic typology

8．3 From states to processes

8．4 Directionality of change

8．5 Grammuticalization

8．5．1 Correlated grammuticalization processes

8．5．1．1 Phonological

8．5．1．2 Morphosyntactic

8．5．1．3 Functional

8．5．2 Some issues in grummaticalization

8．6 Conclusion

9．1 Introduction

9 Linguistic explanation in the dynamic paradigm

9．2 Description．explanation and generalization

9．3 Internal generalizations：language-internal and cross-linguistic

9．4 External generalizations：language and biology

9．5 Diachronic explanations and synchronic grammar

Notes

Peferences

Map of languages cited

Auth or index

Language index

Subjectindex

Croft：Typology and Universals：Errata

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