INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. A brief survey of the history of linguistics.

CHAPTER II. Data and aims of linguistics: connexions with related sciences.

CHAPTER III. The object of study.

1.On defining a ianguage

Preface by Halliday

2.Linguistic structure: its place among the facts of language

王宗炎序

3.Languages and their place in human affairs Semiology

Preface by Chomsky

CHAPTER IV. Linguistics of language structure and linguistics of speech

CHAPTER V. Internal and external elements of a language

沈家煊序

1.Why it is necessary to study this topic

CHAPTER VI. Representation of a language by writing.

2.The prestige of writing :reasons for its ascendancy over the spoken word

导读

3.Systems of writing

4.Causes of inconsistency between spelling and pronunciation

5.Consequences of this inconsistency

CHAPTER VII. Physiological phonetics.

1.Definition of the subject

2.Transcription

3.Writingasas evidence

APPENDIX PRINCIPPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS

CHAPTER I. Sound types.

1.On defining speech sounds

2.The vocal apparatus and how it works

Translator s Introduction

3.Classification of sounds by oral articulation

Preface to the First Edition

1.Necessity of studying sounds in spoken sequences

CHAPTER II. Sounds in spoken sequences.

2.Adduction and abduction

Preface to the Third Edition

Preface to the Second Edition

3.Combinations of adduction and abduction in the spoken sequence

4.Syllabic boundaries and vocalic peaks

5.Criticism of theories of syllabification

6.Duration of adduction and abduction

7.Sounds of aperture 4 Diphthongs Questions of spelling Editorial note

1.Sign,signification,signal

CHAPTER I. Nature of the linguistic sign.

PART ONE GENERAL PRINCIPLES

2.First principle: the sign is arbitrary

3.Second principle: linear character of the signal

CHAPTER II. Invariability and variability of the sign.

1.Invariability

2.Variability

CHAPTER III. Static linguistics and evolutionary linguistics.

1.Internal duality of all sciences concerned with values

2.Internal duality and the history of linguistics

3.Examples of internal duality

4.Difference between the two orders illustrated by comparisons

5.Synchronic and diachronic linguistics. Their methods and principles contrasted

6.Synchronic laws and diachronic laws

7.Is there a panchronic point of view?

8.Consequences of the confusion of synchrony with diachrony

9.Conclusions

PART TWO SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS

CHAPTER I. General observations.

1.Entities and units Definitions

CHAPTER II. Concrete entities of a language.

2.Methods of delimitation

3.Practical difficulties of delimitation

4.Conclusion

CHAPTER III. Identities, realities, oalues.

CHAPTER IV. Linguistic value.

1.The language as thought organised in sound

2.Linguistic value: conceptual aspects

3. Linguistic value: material aspects

4.The sign as a whole

1.Definitions

CHAPTER V. Syntagmatic relations and associative relations.

2.Syntagmatic relations

3.Associative relations

1.Syntagmatic interdependences

2.Simultaneous functioning of both types of group

1.Their nature and purpose

3.Absolute arbitrariness and relative arbitrariness

CHAPTER VIIl. Grammar and its subdivisions.

1.Definitions. Traditional divisions

2.Rational divisions

CHAPTER VIII. Abstract entities in grammar

CHAPTER VI. The language mechanism.

PART THREE DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS

CHAPTER I. General observations.

CHAPTER II. Sound changes

1.Their absolute regularity

2.Conditioning of sound changes

3.Methodological considerations

4.Causes of sound change

5.The scope of sound change is unpredictable

1.Breaking grammatical links

CHAPTER III. Grammatical consequences of phonetic evolution.

2.Obliteration of word-composition

3.There are no phonetic doublets

4.Alternation

5.Laws of alternation

6.Alternation and grammatical link

1.Definition and examples

CHAPTER IV.Analogy.

2.Analogies are not changes

3.Analogy as the creative principle in languages

CHAPTER V. Analogy and evolution

1.How an analogical innovation enters the language

2.Analogical innovations as symptoms of changes in interpretation

3.Analogy as a principle of renovation and conservation

CHAPTER VI. Popular etymology.

CHAPTER VII. Agglutination.

1.Definition

2.Agglutination and analogy

CHAPTER VIII. Diachronic units, identities and realities.

APPENDICES

A. Subjective and objective analysis

B. Subjective analysis and determination of units smaller than the word

C. Etymology

PART FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL LINGUISTICS

CHAPTER I. On the diversity of languages,

CHAPTER II. Geographical diversity: its complexity.

1.Coexistence of several languages in the same place

2.Literary language and local dialect

CHAPTER III. Causes of geographical diversity.

1.Time, the essential cause

2.Linguistic areas affected by time

3.Dialects have no natural boundaries

4.Languages have no natural boundaries

CHAPTER IV. Propagation of linguistic waves.

1.Force of intercourse and parochialism

2.A single principle underlying both forces

3.Linguistic differentiation in separate areas

PART FIVE QUESTIONS OF RETROSPEOTIVE LINGUISTICS CONCLUSION

CHAPTER I. The two perspectives of diachronic linguistics.

CHAPTER II. Earliest languages and prototypes.

CHAPTER III. Reconstructions.

2.Degree of certainty of reconstructions

CHAPTER IV. Linguistic evidence in anthropology and prehistory

1.Languages and races

2.Ethnicity

3.Linguistic paleontology

4.Linguistic types and group mentality

CHAPTER V. Language families and linguistic types

Index

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