Tables

Table 2-1：List of felicity conditions on the directive class

Table 2-2：Request strategies

Table 3-1：Social distance and dominance variation for each request situation

Table 4-1：Request strategies for the AM and CHN groups in the DCT

Table 4-2：Frequency of formal means of requests by the AM,IL and CHN groups

Table 4-3：Situations in each situation set

Table 4-4：Opting out strategy

Table 4-5：Direct strategy

Table 4-6：Conventionally indirect strategy

Table 4-7：Combined strategy

Table 4-8：Non-conventionally indirect strategy

Table 4-9：Cultural stratifications of strategy categories for all situations for groups AM,IL and CHN

Table 4-10：Combined strategies of requests

Table 4-11：+SD(Directness levels)

Table 4-12：-SD(Directness levels)

Table 4-13：Comparison of intra-groups in the use of strategies between +SD and -SD

Table 4-14：X=Y(Directness levels)

Table 4-15：X＞Y(Directness levels)

Table 4-16：X＜Y(Directness levels)

Table 4-17：Comparison of intra-groups in the use of strategies between X=Y,X＞Y and X＜Y

Table 4-18：Comparison between three groups in the case of request controllability

Table 4-19：Comparison of the age differences in the use of strategies

Table 4-20：Sexual differences of request strategies for the AM group in three situations

Table 4-21：Sexual differences of request strategies for the IL group in three situations

Table 4-22：Sexual differences of request strategies for the CHN group in three situations

Table 4-23：Sexual differences of request strategies in three situations

Table 4-24：Comparison of three groups in the use of modification

Table 4-25：Comparison of pre-modification of requests among three groups

Table 4-26：Comparison of three groups in the use of tokens

Table 4-27：S3.Notes(-SD,X=Y)

Table 4-28：S12.Train(-SD,X＜Y)

Table 4-29：S6.Policeman(+SD,X＞Y)

Table 4-30：Comparison of three groups in request responses

Table 4-31：Responses to requests in S5 ＆ S9(+D)situations by the AM group

Table 4-32：Responses to requests in S5 ＆ S9(+D)situations by the IL group

Table 4-33：Responses to requests in S5 ＆ S9(+D)situations by the CHN group

Table 4-34：Responses to requests in S3 ＆ S12(-SD)situations by the AM group

Table 4-35：Responses to requests in S3 ＆ S12(-SD)situations by the IL group

Table 4-36：Responses to requests in S3 ＆ S12(-SD)situations by the CHN group

Table 4-37：Responses to requests in S1 ＆ S3(X=Y)situations by the AM group

Table 4-38：Responses to requests in S1 ＆ S3(X=Y)situations by the IL group

Table 4-39：Responses to requests in S1 ＆ S3(X=Y)situations by the CHN group

Table 4-40：Responses to requests in S4 ＆ S7(X＜Y)situations by the AM group

Table 4-41：Responses to requests in S4 ＆ S7(X＜Y)situations by the IL group

Table 4-42：Responses to requests in S4 ＆ S7(X＜Y) situations by the CHN group

Table 4-43：Responses to requests in S6 ＆ S8(X＞Y)situations by the AM group

Table 4-44：Responses to requests in S6 ＆ S8(X＞Y)situations by the IL

Table 4-45：Responses to requests in S6 ＆ S8(X＞Y)situations by the CHN group

Figures

Fig.2-1：Different communicative styles

Fig.2-2：An old lady or a young lady

Fig.2-3：The pragmatic continuum:language-culture

Fig.2-4：Speech act classification in terms of strategies

Fig.2-5：Causal relation of acts

Fig.2-6：Indirect commands with two responses

Fig.2-7：Force dynamics model

Fig.2-8：Classification of requestives

Fig.2-9：Modifications of requests

Fig.2-10：Principles and maxims of interaction

Fig.2-11：Possible strategies for doing FTAs

Fig.2-12：Scale of politeness

Fig.4-1：Mapping of input to output in OT grammar

Fig.4-2：Optimal choice of request strategies

Fig.4-3：Grammaticalization process

Fig.4-4：Apology classifications

Fig.5-1：Comparison of compliment responding strategies between Americans and the Chinese

Fig.5-2：Facial expressions

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Orientation of the Title

1.2 Motivations of the Present Study

1.3 The Concept and Criteria of Requests

1.4 Intonation of Speech Acts

1.5 The Nature of the Present Study

1.6 Propositional Opacity of Requests

1.7 Methods

1.8 The Aims and Hypotheses of the Present Study

1.9 Layout and Scope of the Present Study

1.10 Summary

Chapter 2 Theoretical Background to the Contrastive Study of Requests in English and Chinese

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Pragmatics:Language Use in Contexts

2.3 Cross-cultural Pragmatics

2.4 Sociopragmatics

2.5 Interlanguage Pragmatics

2.6 Metapragmatics

2.7 Interpersonal Relationship Studies

2.8 Linguistic Strategies

2.9 Speech Act Theories

2.10 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts

2.11 Direct ＆ Indirect Speech Acts and Politeness

2.12 Empirically-based Cognitive Model of Speech Acts

2.13 Request Classification and Request Strategies

2.13.1 Request Classification

2.13.2 Formal Means of Requests

2.13.3 Structural Components of Requests

2.13.4 Request Strategy:a Functional Perspective

2.13.5 Modifications of Requests

2.13.5.1 Internal Modifications

2.13.5.2 External Modifications

2.14 Politeness Theories

2.15 Politeness of Requests

2.16 Literature Review of Request Studies by Chinese Scholars

2.17 Summary

Chapter 3 Request Data Collection:Design and Methodology

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Examples of Requests in English and Chinese in the Actual Discourse

3.3 Subjects and Procedure

3.4 The Questionnaire

3.4.1 The Discourse Completion Test

3.4.2 Modifications of the DCT for the Present Study

3.5 Summary

Chapter 4 Analysis and Discussion of the Results

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Request Forms in English and Chinese

4.2.1 Similarities

4.2.2 Differences

4.3 Situational Variations and Situational Sets in the Use of Strategies

4.3.1 Situational Variations in the Use of Strategies

4.3.1.1 The AM Group

4.3.1.2 The IL Group

4.3.1.3 The CHN Group

4.3.2 Distribution of Main Request Strategy Categories in the Six Situation Sets

4.3.3 Cross-cultural Differences in the Interaction

4.3.4 Summary

4.4 Major Variables in the Use of Request Strategy

4.4.1 Social Distance and Dominance

4.4.1.1 Social Distance

4.4.1.2 Dominance

4.4.2 Controllability of Acts

4.4.2.1 High Controllability

4.4.2.2 Low Controllability

4.4.3 Age

4.4.3.1 The Same Age

4.4.3.2 The Younger to the Older

4.4.3.3 The Older to the Younger

4.4.3.4 Summary

4.4.4 Sex

4.4.4.1 The AM Group

4.4.4.2 The IL Group

4.4.4.3 The CHN Group

4.4.4.4 Summary

4.5 Modifications of Requests

4.5.1 The AM Group

4.5.2 The IL Group

4.5.3 The CHN Group

4.5.4 Summary

4.6 Pre-modification of Requests

4.6.1 The AM Group

4.6.2 The IL Group

4.6.3 The CHN Group

4.6.4 Summary

4.7 Tokens Used in the Requests among the Three Groups

4.7.1 The AM Group

4.7.2 The IL Group

4.7.3 The CHN Group

4.7.4 Summary

4.8 Request Perspectives

4.8.1 Introduction

4.8.2 In Situation(-SD,X=Y)

4.8.3 In Situation(-SD,X＜Y)

4.8.4 In Situation(+SD,X＞Y)

4.8.5 Summary

4.9 Initiating Markers of Requests

4.9.1 Address Form

4.9.2 "Excuse me"and"Sorry"

4.9.3 The Typical Request Markers"Please"and“请”

4.9.3.1 The AM Group

4.9.3.2 The IL Group

4.9.3.3 The CHN Group

4.9.3.4 Summary

4.10 Other Inferring Strategies Used in the Requesting Action

4.11 Special Strategies of Requests——A Metonymic Approach

4.12 The Disease to Please

4.13 Tentative Analyses of the Common Features of Request Production

4.14 Responses to Requests

4.14.1 Introduction

4.14.2 The AM Group

4.14.3 The IL Group

4.14.4 The CHN Group

4.14.5 Summary

4.14.6 Social Distance,Dominance and Sex in the Responses

4.14.6.1 Social Distance

4.14.6.2 Dominance

4.14.6.3 Sex

4.15 Tentative Analyses of the Common Features of Request Responses

4.16 From Requests to Apologies

4.17 Summary

Chapter 5 Conclusions

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Major Findings

5.3 Tentative Analyses from the Cultural Perspective

5.4 Chinese Politeness from Responding to Compliments

5.5 Pragmatic Tact in Language Use

5.6 Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure and Pragmatic Competence Development in the ForeignLanguage Teaching

5.6.1 Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure

5.6.2 Pragmatic Competence and its Teachability

5.7 Speculations about the Weaknesses of this Study

5.7.1 The C-constituting Model of Communication

5.7.2 Nonverbal Language

5.7.3 Sequences of Speech Acts

5.7.4 Suggested Future Research Dimensions

5.8 Conclusions

Appendix Ⅰ：A Glossary in English and Chinese

Appendix Ⅱ：Questionnaire of requests (the English version)

Appendix Ⅲ：Questionnaire of requests(the Chinese version)

Appendix Ⅳ：Idiomatic Expressions of Requests in English

Appendix Ⅴ：Idiomatic Expressions of Requests in Chinese

Appendix Ⅵ：Dr.Braiker's 21 Day Action Plan to Cure People-Pleasing Disease

Bibliography