Preface

Part One ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHY

Chaper 1 Socrates'Predecessors

What Is Permanent in Existence？

Thales

Anaximander

Anaximenes

The Mathematical Basis of All Things

Pythagoras

Attempts to Explain Change

Heraclitus

Parmenides

Zeno

Empedocles

Anaxagoras

The Atomists

Atoms and the Void

Theory of Knowledge and Ethics

Chapter 2 The Sophists and Socrates

The Sophists

Protagoras

Gorgias

Thrasymachus

Socrates

Socrates'Life

Socrates as a Philosopher

Socrates'Theory of Knowledge：Intellectual Midwifery

Socrates'Moral Thought

Socrates'Trial and Death

Chapter 3 Plato

Plato's Life

Theory of Knowledge

The Cave

The Divided Line

Theory of Forms

Moral Philosophy

The Concept of the Soul

The Cause of Evil：Ignorance or Forgetfulness

Recovering Lost Morality

Virtue as Fulfillment of Function

Political Philosophy

The State as a Giant Person

The Philosopher-King

The Virtues in the State

The Decline of the Ideal State

View of the Cosmos

Chapter 4 Aristotle

Aristotle's Life

Logic

The Categories and the Starting Point of Reasoning

The Syllogism

Metaphysics

The Problem of Metaphysics Defined

Substance as the Primary Essence of Things

Matter and Form

The Process of Change：The Four Causes

Potentiality and Actuality

The Unmoved Mover

The Place of Humans：Physics，Biology,and Psychology

Physics

Biology

Psychology

Ethics

Types of "Ends"

The Function of Human Beings

Happiness as the End

Virtue as the Golden Mean

Deliberation and Choice

Contemplation

Politics

Types of States

Differences and Inequalities

Good Government and Revolution

Philosophy of Art

Part Two HELLENISTIC AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY

Chapter 5 Classical Philosophy after Aristotle

Epicureanism

Physics and Ethics

God and Death

The Pleasure Principle

Individual Pleasure versus Social Duty

Stoicism

Wisdom and Control versus Pleasure

Stoic Theory of Knowledge

Mafter as the Basis of All Reality

Good in Everything

Fate and Providence

Human Nature

Ethics and the Human Drama

The Problem of Freedom

Cosmopolitanism and Justice

Skepticism

The Senses Are Deceptive

More Rules Raise Doubts

Morality Possible without Intellectual Certainty

Plotinus

God as the One

The Metaphor of Emanation

Salvation

Chapter 6 Augustine

Augustine's Life

Human Knowledge

Overcoming Skepticism

Knowledge and Sensation

The Theory of Illumination

God

The Created World

Creation from Nothing

The Seminal Principles

Moral Philosophy

The Role of Love

Free Will as the Cause of Evil

Justice

The History and the Two Cities

History

Chapter 7 Philosophy in the Early Middle Ages

Boethius

The Consolation of Philosophy

The Problem of Universals

Pseudo-Dionysius

John Scotus Erigena

The Division of Nature

New Solutions to the Problem of Universals

Odo and Guillaume：Exaggerated Realism

Roscellinus：Nominalism

Abelard：Conceptualism or Moderate Realism

Anselm's Ontological Argument

Anselm's Realism

Ontological Argument

Gaunilon's Rebuttal

Anselm's Reply to Gaunilon

Faith and Reason in Muslim and Jewish Thought

Avicenna

Averroёs

Moses Maimonides

Chapter 8 Aquinas and his Late Medieval Successors

Aquinas's Life

Bonaventura and the University of Paris

Philosophy and Theology

Faith and Reason

Proofs of God's Existence

Proofs from Motion，Efficient Cause，and Necessary Being

Proofs from Perfecfion and Order

Assessment of the Proofs

Knowledge of God's Nature

The Negative Way（Via Negativa）

Knowledge by Analogy

Creation

Is the Created Order Eternal？

Creation out of Nothing

Is This the Best Possible World？

Evil as Privation

The Range of Created Being：The Chain of Being

Morality and Natural Law

Natural Law

The State

Human Nature and Knowledge

Human Nature

Knowledge

Scotus，Ockham，and Eckhart

Voluntarism

Nominalism

Mysticism

Part Three EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY

Chapter 9 Philosophy during the Renaissance

The Closing of the Middle Ages

Humanism and the Italian Renaissance

Pico

Machiavelli

The Reformation

Luther

Erasmus

Skepticism and Faith

Montaigne

Pascal

The Scientific Revolution

New Discoveries and New Methods

Modern Atomism

Francis Bacon

Distempers of Learning

Idols of the Mind

Inductive Method

Thomas Hobbes

Influence of Geometry upon Hobbes's Thought

Bodies in Motion：The Object of Thought

Mechanical View of Human Thought

Political Philosophy and Morality

The State of Nature

Obligation in the State of Nature

The Social Contract

Civil Law versus Natural Law

Chapter 10 Rationalism on the Continent

Descartes

Life

Descartes'Method

Methodic Doubt

The Existence of God and External Things

Mind and Body

Spinoza

Method

God：Substance and Attribute

The World as Modes of God's Attributes

Knowledge，Mind，and Body

Ethics

Leibniz

Substance

God's Existence

Knowledge and Nature

Chapter 11 Empiricism in Britain

Locke

Locke's Theory of Knowledge

Locke's Moral and Political Theory

Berkeley

Hume

Hume's Theory of Knowledge

What Exists External to Us？

Ethics

Part Four LATE MODERN AND 19TH CENTURY PHILOSOPHY

Chapter 12 Kant

The Shaping of Kant's Problem

Kant's Critical Philosophy and His Copernican Revolution

The Way of Critical Philosophy

The Nature of a priori Knowledge

The Synthetic A Priori

Kant's Copernican Revolution

The Structure of Rational Thought

The Categories of Thought and the Forms of Intuition

The Self and the Unity of Experience

Phenomenal and Noumenal Reality

Transcendental Ideas of Pure Reason as Regulative Concepts

The Antinomies and the Limits of Reason

Proofs of God's Existence

Practical Reason

The Basis of Moral Knowledge

Morality and Rationalty

"Good"Defined as the Good Will

The Categorical Imperative

The Moral Postulates

Aesthetics：The Beautiful

The Beautiful as Independent Pleasant Satisfaction

The Beautiful as an Object of Universal Delight

Finality versus Purpose in the Beautiful Object

Necessity，Common Sense，and the Beautiful

Chapter 13 German Idealism

Kant's Impact on German Thought

Hegel

Life

Absolute Mind

The Nature of Reality

Ethics and Politics

Absolute Spirit

Schopenhauer

Schopenhauer's Life

The Principle of Sufficient Reason

The World as Will and Idea

The Ground of Pessimism

Is There Any Escape from the"Will"？

Chapter 14 Utilitarianism and Positivism

Bentham

Bentham's Life

The Principle of Utility

Law and Punishment

Bentham's Radicalism

John Stuart Mill

Mill's Version of Utilitarianism

Liberty

Comte

Comte's Life and Times

Positivism Defined

The Law of the Three Stages

Comte's Sociology and"Religion of Humanity"

Chapter 15 Kierkegaard，Marx,and Nietzsche

Kierkegaard

Human Existence

Truth as Subjectivity

The Aesthetic Stage

The Ethical Stage

The Religious Stage

Marx

Marx's Life and Influences

The Epochs of History：Marx's Dialectic

The Substructure：The Material Order

The Alienation of Labor

The Superstructure：The Origin and Role of Ideas

Nietzsche

Nietzsche's Life

"God is Dead"

The Apolonian versus Dionysian

Master Morality versus Slave Morality

The Will to Power

Revaluafion of All Morals

The Superperson

Part Five 20TH CENTURY AND CONTEMPORAary PHILOSOPHY

Chapter 16 Pragmatism and Process Philosophy

Pragmatism

Peirce

A Theory of Meaning

The Role of Belief

The Elements of Method

James

Pragmatism as a Method

The Pragmatic Theory of Truth

Free Will

The Will to Believe

Dewey

The Spectator versus Experience

Habit,Intelligence，and Learning

Value in a World of Fact

Process Philosophy

Bergson

Going Around versus Entering Into

The Scientific Way of Analysis

The Metaphysical Way of Intuition

The Process of Duration

Evolution and the Vital Impulse

Morality and Religion

Whitehead

The Error of Simple Location

Self-Consciousness

Prehension

Eternal Obiects

Chapter 17 Analytic Philosophy

Bertrand Russell

Logical Atomism

Problems with Logical Atomism

Logical Positivism

The Principle of Verification

Rudolph Carnap

Problems with Logical Positivism

Quine's Critique of Empiricism

Ludwig Wittgenstein

Wittgenstein's Road to Philosophy

The New Wittgenstein

Language Games and Following Rules

Clarifying Metaphysical Language

John Austin

The Notion of"Excuses"

The Benefits of Ordinary Language

Chapter 18 Phenomenology and Existentialism

Edmund Husserl

Husserl's Life and Influence

The Crisis of European Science

Descartes and Intenfionality

Phenomena and Phenomenological Bracketting

The Life-World

Martin Heidegger

Heidegger's Life

Dasein as Being-in-the-World

Dasein as Concern

Religious Existentialism

Karl Jaspers

Gabriel Marcel

Jean-Paul Sartre

Sartre's Life

Existence Precedes Essence

Freedom and Responsibility

Nothingness and Bad Faith

Human Consciousness

Marxism and Freedom Revisited

Maurice Merleau-Ponty

Merleau-Ponty's Life

The Primacy of Perception

The Relativity of Knowledge

Perception and Politics

Chapter 19 Recent Philosophy

The Mind-Body Problem

Ryle and the Ghost in the Machine

Identity Theory and Functionalism

Searle and the Chinese Room Argument

Rorty

Influence of Pragmatism

The Contingency of Language

The Contingency of Selfhood

The Contingency of Community

Virtue Theory Revisited

Elizabeth Anscombe

Nel Noddings

Continental Philosophy

Structuralism

Post-Structuralism

Postmodernism