Chapter One The Nature of Vacuum

1.1 What Is Vacuum?

1.2 General Nature of a Gas

1.3 The Atmosphere

1.4 Units of Pressure

1.5 Decimals and Powers of Ten

1.6 Degrees of Vacuum

1.7 Mean Free Path of a Gas

1.8 Temperature Scales

1.9 Effect of Pressure on a Gas

1.10 Effect of Temperature on a Gas

1.11 The General Gas Law

1.12 Some Other Characteristics of Gases

Chapter Two Vacuum Systems

2.1 Elements of a Vacuum System

2.2 Some Types of Vacuum Systems

2.3 Quantity of Gas and Throughput

2.4 Comparison with an Electric Circuit

2.5 Comparison with Water Flow

2.6 Resistances Connected in Series

2.7 Resistances Connected in Parallel

2.8 The Use of Logarithms

2.9 Logarithmic Scales

2.10 Pumping Speed

2.11 Losses in Pumping Speed

Chapter Three Rotary Oil-Sealed Pumps

3.1 The Nature of Such Pumps

3.2 Pump Oils and the Oil System

3.3 Ultimate Pressure

3.4 Pumping Speed

3.5 Effect of Connecting Lines

3.6 Pump Size and Pump-Down Time—Method 1

3.7 Pump Size and Pump-Down Time—Method 2

3.8 Pump Size and Pump-Down Time—Method 3

3.9 Gas Handling Capacity of a Pump

3.10 Some General Rules

3.11 Setting Up Rotary Oil-Sealed Pumps

3.12 Starting Rotary Oil-Sealed Pumps

3.13 Stopping Rotary Oil-Sealed Pumps

3.14 Maintenance Problems

3.15 Use of a Nomograph

Chapter Four Vapor Pumps

4.1 General Nature of Vapor Pumps

4.2 Some Features of Diffusion Pumps

4.3 Some Features of Ejector Pumps

4.4 Mercury versus Oil

4.5 Pump Performance

4.6 Performance Characteristics of Diffusion Pumps

4.7 Performance Characteristics of Ejector Pumps

4.8 Migration of Pump Fluid

4.9 Backing Pump Requirements

4.10 Effect of Connecting Lines

4.11 Pump-Down Time for Vapor Pumps

4.12 Operating a Vapor Pump

4.13 Poor Operation or Failure of Vapor Pumps

Chapter Five Some Other Types of Pumps

5.1 Molecular Drag Pumps

5.2 Roots Blower Pumps

5.3 The Use of Getters as Pumps

5.4 Gettering and Ionizing

5.5 Pumps Using Evaporation and Ionization

5.6 Pumps Using Sputtering and Ionization

5.7 Cryopumping

5.8 Other Sorption Pumps

5.9 Water Aspirator,Toepler,and Sprengel Pumps

Chapter Six Measurement of Pressure

6.1 The Nature of Vacuum Gauges

6.2 Bourdon and Diaphragm Gauges

6.3 U-Tube Manometers

6.4 McLeod Gauges

6.5 Pirani and Thermocouple Gauges

6.6 Thermionic Ionization Gauges

6.7 Cold Cathode Ionization Gauge

6.8 Gauges Using Radioactive Materials

6.9 Viscosity- and Radiometer-Type Gauges

6.10 Use of Discharge Tube to Measure Pressure

6.11 Gauges to Measure Very Low Pressures

6.12 Calibration and Ranges of Vacuum Gauges

Chapter Seven Measurement of Pumping Speed

7.1 Why Measure Pumping Speed?

7.2 The Metered-Leak Method

7.3 Positioning of Vacuum Gauge and Air Leak

7.4 Admission of Air

7.5 Vacuum Gauges

7.6 Test Dome

7.7 Rate-of-Rise Measurement

7.8 Use of a Known Conductance

Chapter Eight Properties of Some Vacuum Materials

8.1 The Elements

8.2 Mercury and Water

8.3 Liquids Used in Vacuum Practice

8.4 Gases and Vapors

8.5 Elastomers and Some Other Materials

8.6 Glasses,Ceramics,and Metals Sealing to Them

8.7 Copper and Copper Bearing Alloys

8.8 Iron and Some of Its Alloys

8.9 Molybdenum,Tantalum,and Tungsten

8.10 Nickel and Its Alloys

8.11 Vacuum Greases,Oils,Cements,and Waxes

8.12 Some Drying and General Sorption Agents

8.13 Temperature Data

8.14 Alphabetical Listing

Chapter Nine Cleaning Techniques

9.1 The Nature of Contaminants

9.2 General Methods of Reducing Contamination

9.3 Descaling and Pickling Processes

9.4 Electrolytic Cleaning and Polishing

9.5 Cleaning of Mercury and Glass

9.6 Miscellaneous Cleaning Procedures

9.7 Cleaning by Degassing

Chapter Ten Some Fabrication Techniques

10.1 Glass versus Metal

10.2 Glass-to-Metal Seals

10.3 Fabrication of Some Other Types of Seals

10.4 Soldering

10.5 Brazing

10.6 Hydrogen Brazing

10.7 Welding

10.8 Electroplating

10.9 Gasketed Joints

10.10 Construction of Vacuum Vessels

Chapter Eleven Baffles,Traps,and Valves

11.1 The Use of Baffles and Traps

11.2 Some Designs of Baffles

11.3 Some Designs of Traps

11.4 Operation and Maintenance of Baffles and Traps

11.5 Liquid Nitrogen Filling Systems

11.6 Pumping Losses in Baffles and Traps

11.7 The Functions of Vacuum Valves

11.8 Gate,Disk,and Flap Valves

11.9 Globe,Needle,and Diaphragm Valves

11.10 Stopcock,Plug,and Ball Valves

11.11 Bakable Valves

11.12 Some Special Valves

11.13 Care and Maintenance of Valves

Chapter Twelve Some Other Vacuum Components

12.1 Common Static Seals Using Elastomers

12.2 Sliding and Rotating Seals

12.3 High Temperature Seals

12.4 Low Temperature Seals

12.5 Some Other Forms of Seals

12.6 Couplings,Hose Clamps,etc.

12.7 Electrical Lead-Throughs

12.8 Leak Devices and Cut-Offs

12.9 Protective Devices

Chapter Thirteen Conventional Vacuum Systems

13.1 The Nature of Such Systems

13.2 Basic Design Considerations

13.3 Conductances of Components

13.4 Designing a Vacuum System

13.5 Setting Up a New Vacuum System

13.6 Starting Up a Vacuum System

13.7 Starting and Operating Tight Vacuum Systems

13.8 Shutting Down a Vacuum System

13.9 Maintenance Problems with Vacuum Systems

13.10 The Small Vacuum Laboratory

Chapter Fourteen Very High and Ultra-High Vacuum Systems

14.1 The Nature of Such Systems

14.2 Small Very High Vacuum Systems

14.3 Small Ultra-High Vacuum Systems

14.4 Bake-Out Arrangement for Small Systems

14.5 Bake-Out Procedure for Small Systems

14.6 Large Low Pressure Vacuum Systems

14.7 Bake-Out of Large Systems

14.8 Construction Materials and Techniques

14.9 Is There a Low Pressure Limit?

Chapter Fifteen Finding and Repairing Leaks

15.1 When Is a System Tight?

15.2 Sizes of Leaks

15.3 Methods of Leak Detection

15.4 Sealing Substance Outside,Pressure Change Inside

15.5 Rate-of-Rise Measurements

15.6 High Pressure Inside,Indicator Outside

15.7 Spark Coils and Discharge Tubes

15.8 Probe Materials with Standard Vacuum Gauges

15.9 Unique Response of Vacuum Gauges

15.10 Halogen Leak Detectors

15.11 The Helium Leak Detector

15.12 Sensitivity of Helium Leak Detectors

15.13 Response and Clean-Up Times

15.14 Vacuum Testing

15.15 Pressure and Pressure-Vacuum Testing

15.16 Commercial Helium Leak Detectors

15.17 What Leak Detection System Should Be Used?

15.18 Some General Rules for Leak Hunting

15.19 Repairing Leaks

Appendices

A Quantities from Kinetic Theory of Gases

B Mechanical,Ejector,and Diffusion-Ejector Pump Oils

C Quantities and Relationships Useful in Vacuum Practice

D Appearance of Discharges in Gases and Vapors at Low Pressures

E Bibliography

Index