INTRODUCTION The Emergence and evolution of Issues in American Foreign Policy

GOALS OF U.S. FOREIGN POLICY

CAUSAL FACTORS IN AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY

Systemic Factors and the Evolution of U.S. Foreign Policies

Societal Forces and the U.S. Response to Emerging and Reemerging Issues

Role and Idiosyncratic Factors

Post-Cold War Grand Strategy

MODELS OF U.S. DECISION MAKING: RATIONAL ACTOR, ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS, AND GOVERNMENTAL POLITICS

CHAPTER 1 Conventional Force Structure

INTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE ISSUE

THE INITIAL POST-COLD WAR CONVENTIONAL FORCE STRUCTURE DEBATE

REFINEMENT OF THE DEBATE CONCERNING U.S. CONVENTIONAL FORCE STRUCTURE

THE STRATEGIC PROBLEM FOR THE EARLY 21ST-CENTURY U.S. CONVENTIONAL FORCES

CHAPTER 2 Ballistic Missile defense

INTRODUCTION

FACTORS LEADING TO THE INITIAL STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE PROPOSAL

U.S. AND SOVIET COMPETITION IN NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND DELIVERY SYSTEMS

THE REAGAN STRATEGIC BUILDUP

THE REAGAN INITIATIVE TO DEVELOP A STRATEGIC DEFENSE SYSTEM

THE DEClINE OF SDI AS A FOREIGN POLICY OPTION

THE REEMERGENCE OF BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENSE AS A FOREIGN POLICY ISSUE

THE BUSH JR. ADMINISTRATION, THE NUCLEAR POSTURE REVIEW, AND THE EMERGING CONTEXT OF NATIONAL MISSILE DEFENSE

CHAPTER 3 Weapons of Mass Destruction

INTRODUCTION

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS BEFORE THE COLD WAR PERIOD

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS DURING THE COLD WAR PERIOD

Biological Weapons Convention

Nuclear Weapons

THE END OF THE COLD WAR AND PROGRESS IN CONSTRAINING WMD

International Nuclear Agreements

The Chemical Weapons Convention

THE REEMERGING ISSUE OF WMD

ADDRESSING THE REEMERGING ISSUE OF WMD

CHAPTER 4 International terrorism

INTRODUCTION

U.S. POLICY ON TERRORISM

THE SOURCES OF TERRORISM

OUTLINE OF THE U.S. POLICY RESPONSE

DEFINITIONAL QUAGMIRES

CONVENTIONAL TERRORISM

NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL WEAPONS TERRORISM

CYBERTERRORISM AND INFORMATION WARFARE

The Nature of Cyberterrorism

U.S. Government Responses to International Cyberterrorism

COSTS VERSUS BENEFITS AND RISKS VERSUS REWARDS--THE EVOLUTION OF U.S. POLICY TOWARD TERRORISTS

HOMELAND SECURITY--U.S. RESPONSE TO TERRORISM

CHAPTER 5 Transnational Organized Crime*194+INTRODUCTION

TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME GROUPS

DRUG TRAFFICKING

DRUG PRODUCTION CHAINS--THE COLOMBIAN COCAINE CARTELS

Phase One (1974-1980)

Phase Two (1981-1986)

Phase Three (1987-1994)

Phase Four (1994-present)

Plan Colombia

CHAPTER 6 Humanitarian Intervention

INTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF PRE-COLD WAR* U.S. HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION

HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION DURING THE COLD WAR

HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION IN A POST-COLD WAR WORLD

CASE STUDIES: HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION IN THE POST-COLD WAR WORLD

The Kurds, 1991

Somalia

Haiti

Bosnia

Kosovo

CASE STUDIES: REFRAINING FROM INTERVENTION

Afghanistan

Rwanda

Sudan

The Kurds, 1992-2001

CHAPTER 7 Environmental Degradation

INTRODUCTION

THE EMERGENCE OF GLOBAL WARMING AND OZONE LAYER DEPLETION ON THE U.S. FOREIGN POLICY AGENDA

OZONE DEPLETION

Chlorofluorocarbons

The Vienna Convention

The Montreal Protocol

CLIMATE CHANGE

Scientific Evidence for Global Warming

Why Scientific Support for Global Warming was Insufficient to Change Policy

The issue of Global Warming During the Bush Sr. Administration

Changes in U.S. Policy During the Clinton Administration

The Kyoto Protocol

GENERAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF U.S. POLICY REGARDING GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE-DEPLETING COMPOUNDS

UNRESOLVED PROBLEMS AND THE REEMERGENCE OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AS A CONTENTIOUS FOREIGN POLICY ISSUE FOR THE UNITED STATES

THE POLICIES OF THE BUSH JR. ADMINISTRATION

FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR U.S. POLICY REGARDING GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION

Ozone Depletion

Crosscutting Issues

CHAPTER 8 Biodiversity

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY OF U.S. INVOLVEMENT IN THE ISSUE OF SPECIES AND HABITAT PROTECTION

THE ARRAY OF FORCES CONCERNED WITH BIODWERSITY ISSUES

WILDLIFE PROTECTION

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna

Biodiversity Convention

INVASWE SPECIES PROBLEM

ONGOING ISSUES CONCERNING BIODIVERSITY

CLONING

CHAPTER 9 Sustainable development

INTRODUCTION

THE CONFUSED CLASSIFICATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT

U.S. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE POLICIES IN THE 1950s

U.S. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE POLICIES IN THE 1960s

U.S. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE IN THE 1970s

U.S. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE IN THE 1980s

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND POPULATION GROWTH IN THE 1980s

THE EMERGING CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

POPULATION, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, AND U.S. FOREIGN POLICY IN THE LATE 1980s AND 1990s

DEBT BURDEN IN THE 1980s-1990s

CLINTON, MULTILATERALISM, AND THE MOVEMENT TOWARD SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE

U.S. FOREIGN POLICY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

DEBT RELIEF AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY

CHAPTER 10 PANDEMIC DISEASE

INTRODUCTION

IN THE PAST

U.S. SUPPORT FOR INTERNATIONAL ACTION AIMED AT ADDRESSING SPECIFIC ENDEMIC AND POTENTIALLY PANDEMIC DISEASES

HIV/AIDS

Malaria

Tuberculosis

THE RESPONSE OF THE BUSH JR. ADMINISTRATION TO THE ISSUE OF PANDEMIC DISEASE

PANDEMIC DISEASE AND THE EMERGING CONFLICT WITH U.S. TRADE POLICIES

CHAPTER 11 International Energy Policy

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND TO THE ISSUE

THE 1990s AND THE EMERGENCE OF CONCERN FOR INTERNATIONAL ENERGY POLICIES

ACTORS AND FACTORS AFFECTING INTERNATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

Energy Sanctions as a Part of U.S. Energy Policy

Domestic Factors and U.S. Energy Policy

FUTURE U.S. INTERNATIONAL ENERGY POLICY OPTIONS

CHAPTER 12 The IMF and International Monetary Management

INTRODUCTION

THE EVOLUTION OF U.S. POLICY TOWARD THE IMF IN THE POST-WORLD WAR II PERIOD

International Currency Stability

The Role of the U.S. Dollar

The United States as the Unilateral Money Manager, 1947-1960

Political Advantages of Unilateralism to the United States

The End of U.S. Unilateral Mone3/Management

THE UNITED STATES AND THE RISE AND DECLINE OF MULTILATERAL MANAGEMENT

A Diminished U.S. Role

Establishment of the Group of Ten

The Creation of Artificial International Currency (Special Drawing Rights)

The Growing Influence of Transnational Corporations

Growing Interdependence of the United States, Western Europe, and Japan U.S. Attempts to Reassert Unilateral Money Management

The Group of Twenty

EXPANDING INTERDEPENDENCE AND MULTILATERAL MANAGEMENT

The Impact of Increasing Oil Prices

The Impact of Policies of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank (the Fed)

U.S. POLICIES AND THE DEBT CRISIS OF THE 1980s

U.S. Lending and Aid Policies and the Debt of NICs and Other LDCs

Proposed Solutions to Ending Debt of LDCs

THE 1980s DEBT CRISIS AND U.S. POLICY TOWARD THE IMF

Difference in Treatment of NIC Latin American Debt and Other LDC Debt by the United States

Expansion of Borrowing RIghts to Countries Outside the Group of Ten

The Baker Plan: A New Strategy for Growth Among Indebted States

Limited Success of the Baker Plan

Stopgap Measures (Debt Equity Swaps, Debt Swaps, and Bonds) After the Baker Plan

Threatened Political Stability of LDCs and Debt Forgiveness

The Restructuring of Debt Under the Brady Initiative

THE UNITED STATES, THE IMF, AND THE DEBT CRISES OF THE 1990s: MORE OPEN ECONOMIES

The Mexican Crisis of 1994

Lessons in Monitoring the Economic and Political Stability of Loan Recipients

Dangers ora Rapid Move to Open Economies

The United States and IMF Loans to Russia: Russia's Transition to an Open Economy

Stabilizing Russia with Advice and Loans from the IMF

The Role of Limited IMF Aid to Russia in the Election of Antireformers to the Duma

Additional IMF Loans for Russia with New Conditional ties

The Rise in Influence of Oligarchies and Their impact on Political and Economic Stability

The Failure of New Loans by the IMF to Stabilize Russia and the Continued Need for IMF involvement in Pressuring Russia

The United States, the IME and the Asian Financial Crisis

Initial Economic Stability and Growth in East Asia

Failure of the United States and IMF to Prevent Dangerous Asian Lending Practices

OUTSTANDING POLICY ISSUES FOR THE UNITED STATES ASSOCIATED WITH INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Moral Hazard

International Financial Standards and Transparency

Conditional ties

CHAPTER 13 International Trade Policy

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND TO THE ISSUE

KEY ELEMENTS OF THE GATI

U.S. LEADERSHIP UNDER THE GATT

THE GROWTH OF INTERDEPENDENCE, THE DECLINE OF THE COLD WAR, AND RENEWED PROTECTIONIST PRESSURES

The Tokyo Round

NAFTA

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE EMERGING FREE TRADE CONTROVERSY

CHAPTER 14 Management of International Resources

INTRODUCTION

INTERNATIONAL FISHERiES MANAGEMENT

The Development of Fisheries as a U.S. Foreign Policy Issue

The Development of a Coordinated U.S. Fisheries Policy

Pressures for Unilateral Action, 1960-1970

The Rise and Decline of Multilateral Management Policy--1970-1975

UNCLOS III

The U.S. Fisheries Conservation Zone, 1976

The Unfinished and Reemerging Problem of Protecting the World's Marine Living Resources

U.S. Options in the Twenty-First Century

FRESHWATER RESOURCES

OUTER SPACE

The Existing International Legal Framework of Outer Space

Emerging Issues of Outer Space

THE ANTARCTIC

The Antarctic Treaty System

Emerging Issues

CHAPTER 15 Democratization

INTRODUCTION

THE EVOLUTION OF DEMOCRATIZATION AS A GOAL OF U.S. FOREIGN POLICY PRIOR TO WORLD WAR II

Rhetoric and Reality: Democratization and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1945-1975

Democratization and the Carter Administration

Democratization as a Policy Issue in the Reagan Administration

Democratization and U.S. Policy in the Bush Sr. Administration

DEMOCRATIZATION AS A FOCUS FOR U.S. FOREIGN POLICY

THE IMPACT OF THE BROADENING OF DEMOCRATIZATION

Targeted Democratization Programs

Assessment of U.S. Democratization Efforts

CONCLUSION

ISSUE AREA ANALYSIS

THE EVOLUTION OF ISSUES ON THE U.S. FOREIGN POLICY AGENDA

Technological Innovation

Economic Interdependence

Changes in the International System

THE EVOLUTION OF U.S. POLICY TO ADDRESS EMERGING ISSUES

Systemic Factors

Domestic Factors

Idiosyncratic Factors

Crosscutting Factors

THE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ISSUES

THE PROCESS AND PROSPECTS FOR THE EMERGENCE AND EVOLUTION OF ISSUES IN U.S. FOREIGN POLICY

Notes

Index